r*- ° *^ ? CO cr ^=ro °^=s t= o en — > ■« — z CD ^ ^_^_^_ CO Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/expressionofemotOOdarwuoft PRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS, y CHAKLES DAKWIN, M.A., F.K.S., &o. / I 1 WITH PHOTOGRAPHIC AND OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS. LONDON: 3HN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. n 1872. , j * U*\ 9 iff? The right of Translation ie reserved. » / j »• • BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES BY MEANS OF NATURE SELECTION, OK THE PRESERVATION OF FAVOURED RACES I THE STRUGGLE FOR LIFE. Sixth Edition. Thirteenth Thousand. Pot 8vo. Is. 6d. Murray, 1872. THE DESCENT OF MAN AND SELECTION IN RELATION TO SEX. Eighth Thousand. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 24s. MURRAY, 18? I. THE VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DOMESTICATION. Third Thousand. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 28«. Murray, 1863. A NATURALIST'S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD ; OB, A Journal of Researches into thk Natubal History and Geology ok thk Countries visited during the voyage of H.M.S.' 'Beagle,' under the command of Captain Fitzboy, R.N. Eleventh Thousand. Post svo. 9« Murray, 1870. THE VARIOUS CONTRIVANCES by which BRITISH AND FOREIGN ORCHIDS ARE FERTILIZED BY INSECTS; and on the Good Effects of Crossing. With Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 9s. Murray, 1S62. THE STRUCTURE AND DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS. Smith, Elder, & Co. GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON VOLCANIC ISLANDS. Smith, Eldeb, & Co. GEOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON SOUTH AMERICA. Smith, Eldeb, & Co. A MONOGRAPH OF THE CIRRIPEDIA. With numerous Illus- trations. 2 vols. 8vo. Ray Society. Hardwicke. ON THE MOVEMENTS AND HABITS OF CLIMBING PLANTS. With Woodcut*. Williams & Nobgate. FACTS AND ARGUMENTS FOR DARWIN. By Fritz Muller. From the German, with Additions by the Author. Translated by W. S. Dallas, F.LJ3; With Illustrations. Post 8vo. 6s. Murray, 1869. LONDON: PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD AND CHARING CROSS. / . CONTEiTS Introduction Pases 1-26 CHAP. I. — General Principles op Expression. The three chief principles stated — The first principle — Serviceable actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, and are performed whether or not of service in each par- ticular case — The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated habitual movements in man — Beflex actions — Passage of habits into reflex actions — Associated habitual movements in the lower animals — Concluding remarks 27-19 CHAP. II. — General Principles of Expression — continued. The Principle of Antithesis — Instances in the dog and cat — Origin of the principle — Conventional signs — The principle of anti- thesis has not arisen from opposite actions being consciously performed under opposite impulses .. 50-65 CHAP. III. — General Principles of Expression — concluded. The principle of the direct action of the excited nervous system on the body, independently of the will and in part of habit — Change of colour in the hair — Trembling of the muscles — Modified secretions — Perspiration — Expression of extreme pain — Of rage, great joy, and terror — Contrast between the emotions which cause and do not cause expressive movements — Exciting and depressing states of the mind— Summary .. .. 66-82 V CHAP. IV. — Means op Expression in Animals. \/ The emission of sounds — Vocal sounds — Sounds otherwise pro- duced— Erection of the dermal appendages, hairs, feathers, &c., under the emotions of anger and terror — The drawing back of the ears as a preparation for fighting, and as an expression of anger — Erection of the ears and raising the head, a sign of attention 83-115 IV CONTENTS. CHAP. V. — Special Expressions op Animals. The Dog, various expressive movements of — Cats — Horses — Ruminants — Monkeys, their expression of joy and affection — Of pain — Anger — Astonishment and Terror .. Pages 116-146 CHAP. VL — Special Expressions of Man : Suffering and Weeping. The screaming and weeping of infants — Form of features — Age at which weeping commences — The effects of habitual restraint on weeping — Sobbing — Cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming — Cause of the secretion of tears 147-177 CHAP. VII. — Low Spirits, Anxiety, Grief, Dejection, Despair. General effect of grief on the system — Obliquity of the eye- brows under suffering — On the cause of the obliquity of the eyebrows — On the depression of the corners of the mouth 178-197 CHAP. VIII. — Joy, High Spirits, Love, Tender Feelings, Devotion. Laughter primarily the expression of joy — Ludicrous ideas — Movements of the features during laughter — Nature of the sound produced — The secretion of tears during loud laughter — Gradation from loud laughter to gentle smiling — High spirits — The expression of love — Tender feelings — De- votion 198-221 CHAP. IX. — Eeflection — Meditation — Ill-temper — \/ Sulkiness — Determination. The act of frowning — Eeflection with an effort or with the per- ceptiou of something difficult or disagreeable — Abstracted medi- tation — 111- temper — Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness and . pouting — Decision or determination — The firm closure of the " mouth 222-238 CONTENTS. V CliAP. X. — Hatred and Anger. l/ Hatred — Rage, effects of on the system — Uncovering of the teeth — Eage in the insane — Anger and indignation — As expressed by the various races of man — Sneering and defiance — The uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face .. Pages 239-253 CHAP. XI. — Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — Pride, etc. — Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation and Negation. Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed — Derisive smile — Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust — Guilt, deceit, pride, &c. — Helplessness or impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — Shrugging the, shoulders common to most of the races of man — Signs of affirmation and negation 254-277 CHAP. XII. — Surprise — Astonishment— Fear — Horror. Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Opening the mouth — Protrusion of the lips — Gestures accompanying surprise — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection of the hair — Contrae-/ tion of the platysma muscle — Dilatation of the pupils — Horror —Conclusion 278-309 CHAP. XIII. — Self-attention — Shame — Shyness — Modesty: Blushing. Nature of a blush — Inheritance — The parts of the body most affected — Blushing in the various races of man — Accompanying gestures — Confusion of mind — Causes of blushing — Self- attention, the fundamental element — Shyness — Shame, from broken moral laws and conventional rules — Modesty — Theory of blushing — Recapitulation 310-347 CHAP. XIV. — Concluding Remarks and Summary. The three leading principles which have determined the chief move- ments of expression — Their inheritance — On the part which the will and intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions — The instinctive recognition of expression — The bearing of our subject on the specific unity of the races of man — On the successive acquirement of various expressions by the progenitors of man — The importance of expression — Conclusion 348-367 h ( ri) LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. Page. 1. Diagram of the muscles of the face, from Sir C. Bell .. .. 24 2. „ „ n Henle 24 3- » » » » 25 4. Small dog watching a cat on a table 43 5. Dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions . . . . 52 6. Dog in a humble and affectionate frame of mind 53 7. Half-bred Shepherd Dog 54 8. Dog caressing his master 55 9. Cat, savage, and prepared to fight 58 10. Cat in an affectionate frame of mind 59 11. Sound-producing quills from the tail of the Porcupine .. .. 93 12. Hen driving away a dog from her chickens 98 13. Swan driving away an intruder 99 14. Head of snarling dog 118 15. Cat terrified at a dog 128 16. Cynopithecus niger, in a placid condition 136 17. The same, when pleased by being caressed 138 18. Chimpanzee disappointed and sulky 141 19. Photograph of an insane woman 296 20. Terror 299 21. Horror and Agony 306 Plate I. to face page 148. II. ,, 180. ,, III. ,, 202. ,, IV. ,, 250. Plate V. to face page 255. ,, VI. ,, 264. ,, VIL ,, 300. N.B. — Several of the figures in these seven Heliotype Plates have been reproduced from photographs, instead of from the original negatives; and they are in consequence somewhat indistinct. Nevertheless they are faithful copies, and are much superior for my purpose to any drawing, however carefully executed. ON THE EXPEESSION EMOTIONS IN MAN AND ANIMALS, INTRODUCTION. Many works have been written on Expression, but a greater number on Physiognomy, — that is, on the recognition of character through the study of the per- manent form of the features. With this latter subject I am not here concerned. The older treatises,1 which I have consulted, have been of little or no service k) me. The famous i Conferences ' 2 of the painter Le Brun, published in 1667, is the best known ancient work, and contains some good remarks. Another some- what old essay, namely, the 'Discours,' delivered 1774-1782, by the well-known Dutch anatomist Cam- per,3 can hardly be considered as having made any marked advance in the subject. The following works, on the contrary, deserve the fullest consideration. 1 J. Parsons, in his paper in the Appendix to the ' Philosophical Transactions ' for 1746, p. 41, gives a list of forty-one old authors who have written on Expression. 2 ' Conferences sur l'expression des differents Caracteres des Passions.' Paris, 4to, 1667. I always quote from the republication of the • Con- ferences ' in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau, which appeared in 1820, as given in vol. ix. p. 257. 3 'Discours par Pierre Camper sur le moyen de repre'senter les diverses passions,' &c. 1792. B 2 INTRODUCTION. _ Sir Charles Bell, so illustrious for his discoveries in physiology, published in 1806 the first edition, and in 1844 the third edition of his ' Anatomy and Philosophy of Expression.'4 He may with justice be said, not only to have laid the foundations of the subject as a branch of science, but to have built up a noble struc- ture. His work is in every way deeply interesting; it includes graphic descriptions of the various emotions, and is admirably illustrated. It is generally admitted that his service consists chiefly in having shown the intimate relation which exists between the movements of expres- sion and those of respiration. One of the most im- portant points, small as it may at first appear, is that the muscles round the eyes are involuntarily contracted during violent expiratory efforts, in order to protect these delicate organs from the pressure of the blood. This fact, which has been fully investigated for me with the greatest kindness by Professor Donders of Utrecht, throws, as we shall hereafter see, a flood of light on several of the most important expressions of the human countenance. The merits of Sir C. Bell's work have been undervalued or quite ignored by several foreign writers, but have been fully admitted by some, for instance by M. Lemoine,5 who with great justice says: — "Le livre de Ch. Bell devrait etre medite par " quiconque essay e de faire parler le visage de l'homme, " par les philosophes aussi bien que par les artistes, " car, sous une apparence plus legere et sous le pretexte " de l'esthetique, crest un des plus beaux monu- 4 I always quote from the third edition, 1844, which was published after the death of Sir C. Bell, and contains his latest corrections. The first edition of 1806 is much inferior in merit, and does not include some of his more important views. 5 ' De la Physionomie et de la Parole,' par Albert Lemoine, 1865, p. 101. INTRODUCTION. 3 " ments de la science des rapports du physique et du " moral." From reasons which will presently be assigned, Sir C. Bell did not attempt to follow out his views as far as they might have been carried. He does not try to explain why different muscles are brought into action under different emotions ; why, for instance, the inner ends of the eyebrows are raised, and the corners of the mouth depressed, by a person suffering from grief or anxiety. In 1807 M. Moreau edited an edition of Lavater on Physiognomy, 6 in which he incorporated several of his own essays, containing excellent descriptions of the movements of the facial muscles, together with many valuable remarks. He throws, however, very little light on the philosophy of the subject. For in- stance, M. Moreau, in speaking of the act of frowning, that is, of the contraction of the muscle called by 6 ■ L'Art de comiaitre les Homines,' &c., par G. Lavater. The earliest edition of this work, referred to in the preface to the edition of 1820 in ten volumes, as containing the observations of M. Moreau, is said to have been published in 1807 ; and I have no doubt that this is cor- rect, because the ■ Notice sur Lavater ' at the commencement of volume i. is dated April 13, 1806. In some bibliographical works, however, the date of 1805-1809 is given ; but it seems impossible that 1805 can be correct. Dr. Duchenne remarks (' Mccanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. 1862, p. 5, and ' Archives Generates de Me'decine,' Jan. et Fe'v. 1862) that M. Moreau " a compos? pour son outrage un article important," &c, in the year 1805 ; and I find in volume i. of the edition of 1820 passages bearing the dates of December 12, 1805, and another January 5, 1806, besides that of April 13, 1806, above referred to. In consequence of some of these passages having thus been com- posed in 1805, Dr. Duchenne assigns to M. Moreau the priority over Sir C. Bell, whose work, as we have seen, was published in 1806. This is a very unusual manner of determining the priority of scientific works ; but such questions are of extremely little importance in com- parison with their relative merits. The passages above quoted from M. Moreau and from Le Brun are taken in this and all other cases from the edition of 1820 of Lavater, torn. iv. p. 228, and torn. ix. p. 279. B 2 4 INTRODUCTION. French writers the sourcilier (corrugaior super cilii) , remarks with truth : — " Cette action des sourciliers est " un des symptomes les plus tranches de l'expression " des affections penibles ou concentrees." He then adds that these muscles, from their attachment and position, are fitted " a resserrer, a concentrer les princi- * paux traits de la face, comme il convient dans toutes " ces passions vraiment oppressives ou profondes, dans " ces affections dont le sentiment semble porter l'orga- " nisation a revenir sur elle-meme, a se contracter et " a s'amoindrir, comme pour offrir moins de prise et de " surface a des impressions redoutables ou importunes." He who thinks that remarks of this kind throw any light on the meaning or origin of the different expres- sions, takes a very different view of the subject to what I do. In the above passage there is but a slight, if any, advance in the philosophy of the subject, beyond that reached by the painter Le Brun, who, in 1667, in de- scribing the expression of fright, says : — " Le sourcil * qui est abaisse d'un cote et eleve de l'autre, fait voir " que la partie elevee semble le vouloir joindre au ** cerveau pour le garantir du mal que l'ame apercoit, * et le cote qui est abaisse et qui parait enfle, nous fait " trouver dans cet etat par les esprits qui viennent du " cerveau en abondance, comme pour couvrir l'ame et ;< la defendre du mal quelle craint ; la bouche fort li ouverte fait voir le saisissement du cceur, par le " sang qui se retire vers lui, ce qui l'oblige, voulant 'k respirer, a faire un effort qui est cause que la bouche " s'ouvre extremement, et qui, lorsqu'il passe par les " organes de la voix, forme un son qui n'est point " articule ; que si les muscles et les veines paraissent " enfles, ce n'est que par les esprits que le cerveau * envoie en ces parties-la." I have thought the fore- INTRODUCTION. 5 going sentences worth quoting, as specimens of the surprising nonsense which has been written on the subject. * The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing/ by Dr. Burgess, appeared in 1839, and to this work I shall frequently refer in my thirteenth Chapter. In 1862 Dr. Duchenne published two editions, in folio and octavo, of his ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie 'Hurnaine,' in which he analyses by means of elee- ricity, and illustrates by magnificent photographs, the movements of the facial muscles. He has generously permitted me to copy as many of his photographs as I desired. His works have been spoken lightly of, or quite passed over, by some of his countrymen. It is possible that Dr. Duchenne may have exaggerated the importance of the contraction of single muscles in giving expression ; for, owing to the intimate manner in which the muscles are connected, as may be seen in Henle's anatomical drawings7 — the best IJ believe ever published — it is difficult to believe in their separate action. Nevertheless, it is manifest that Dr. Duchenne clearly apprehended this and other sources of error, and as it is known that he was eminently successful in elucidating the physio- logy of the muscles of the hand by the aid of electricity, it is probable that he is generally in the right about the muscles of the face. In my opinion, Dr. Duchenne has greatly advanced the subject by his treatment of it. No one has more carefully studied the contraction of each separate muscle, and the conse- quent furrows produced on the skin. He has also, and this is a very important service, shown which muscles " ( Handbuch der Systematischen Auatomie des Menschen.' Baud I. Dritte Abtheilung, 1858. 6 INTRODUCTION. are least under the separate control of the will. He enters very little into theoretical considerations, and seldom attempts to explain why certain muscles and not others contract under the influence of certain emotions. A distinguished French anatomist, Pierre Gratiolet, gave a course of lectures on Expression at the Sorbonne, and his notes were published (1865) after his death, under the title of * I)e la Physionomie et des Mouve- ments d'Expression.' This is a very interesting work, full of valuable observations. His theory is rather complex, and, as far as it can be given in a single sen- tence (p. 65), is as follows : — " II resulte, de tous les " faits que j'ai rappeles, que les sens, l'imagination et " la pensee elle-meme, si elevee, si abstraite qu'on la " suppose, ne peuvent s'exercer sans eveiller un senti- " ment correlatif, et que ce sentiment se traduit " directement, sympathiquement, symboliquement on " metaphoriquement, dans toutes les spheres des or- " ganes exterieurs, qui le racontent tous, suivant leur " mode d'action propre, comme si chacun d'eux avait " ete directement afTecteY' Gratiolet appears to overlook inherited habit, and even to some extent habit in the individual; and therefore he fails, as it seems to me, to give the right explanation, or any explanation at all, of many ges- tures and expressions. As an illustration of what he calls symbolic movements, I will quote his remarks (p. 37), taken from M. Chevreul, on a man playing at billiards. " Si une bille devie legerement de la direc- " tion que le joueur pretend lui imprimer, ne l'avez-vous " pas vu cent fois la pousser du regard, de la tete et " meme des epaules, comme si ces mouvements, pure- " ment symboliques, pouvaient rectifier son trajet ? Des " mouvements non moins significatifs se produisent INTRODUCTION. / " quand la bille manque d'une impulsion suffisante. Et, u chez les joueurs novices, ils sont quelquefois accuses " au point d'eveiller le sourire sur les levres des spec- " tateurs." Such movements, as it appears to me, may be attributed simply to habit. As often as a man has wished to move an object to one side, he has always pushed it to that side ; when forwards, he has pushed it forwards ; and if he has wished to arrest it, he has pulled backwards. Therefore, when a man sees his ball travelling in a wrong direction, and he intensely wishes it to go in another direction, he cannot avoid, from long habit, unconsciously performing movements which in other cases he has found effectual. As an instance of sympathetic movements Gratiolet gives (p. 212) the following case : — " un jeune chien a " oreilles droites, auquel son maitre presente de loin " quel que viande appetissante, fixe avec ardeur ses a yeux sur cet objet dont il suit tous les mouvements, " et pendant que les yeux regardent, les deux oreilles " se portent en avant comme si cet objet pouvait etre " entendu." Here, instead of speaking of sympathy between the ears and eyes, it appears to me more simple to believe, that as dogs during many gene- rations have, whilst intently looking at any object, pricked their ears in order to perceive any sound; and conversely have looked intently in the direction of a sound to which they may have listened, the movements of these organs have become firmly asso- ciated together through long-continued habit. Dr. Piderit published in 1859 an essay on Expression, which I have not seen, but in which, as he states, he forestalled G-ratiolet in many of his views. In 1867 he published his « Wissenschaftliches System der Mimik und Physiognomik.' It is hardly possible to give in a few sentences a fair notion of his views; perhaps the 8 INTRODUCTION. two following sentences will tell as much as can be briefly told : " the muscular movements of expression " are in part related to imaginary objects, and in part " to imaginary sensorial impressions. In this propo- " sition lies the key to the comprehension of all " expressive muscular movements." (s. 25.) Again, " Expressive movements manifest themselves chiefly " in the numerous and mobile muscles of the face, " partly because the nerves by which they are set into " motion originate in the most immediate vicinity of " the mind-organ, but partly also because these muscles " serve to support the organs of sense." (s. 26.) If Dr. Piderit had studied Sir C. Bell's work, he would pro- bably not have said (s. 101) that violent laughter causes a frown from partaking of the nature of pain ; or that with infants (s. 103) the tears irritate the eyes, and thus excite the contraction of the surrounding muscles. Many good remarks are scattered throughout this volume, to which I shall hereafter refer. Short discussions on Expression may be found in various works, which need not here be particularised. Mr. Bain, however, in two of his works has treated the subject at some length. He says,8 " I look upon the " expression so-called as part and parcel of the feel- " ing. I believe it to be a general law of the mind that, " along with the fact of inward feeling or conscious- " ness, there is a diffusive action or excitement over " the bodily members." In another place he adds, " A " very considerable number of the facts may be brought •' under the following principle: namely, that states of " pleasure are connected with an increase, and states " of pain with an abatement, of some, or all, of the ■ ' The Senses and the Intellect,' 2nd edit. 1864, pp. 96 and 288. The preface to the first edition of this work is dated June, 1855. See also the 2nd edition of Mr. Bain's work on the ' Emotions and Will.' INTRODUCTION. \) u vital functions." But the above law of the diffusive action of feelings seems too general to throw much light on special expressions. Mr. Herbert Spencer, in treating of the Feelings in his ' Principles of Psychology ' (1855), makes the fol- lowing remarks : — " Fear, when strong, expresses itself " in cries, in efforts to hide or escape, in palpitations " and tremblings ; and these are just the manifestations " that would accompany an actual experience of the " evil feared. The destructive passions are shown in a " general tension of the muscular system, in gnashing of " the teeth and protrusion of the claws, in dilated eyes " and nostrils, in growls ; and these are weaker forms of " the actions that accompany the killing of prey." Here we have, as I believe, the true theory of a large number of expressions; but the chief interest and difficulty of the subject lies in following out the wonderfully complex results. I infer that some one (but who he is I have not been able to ascertain) formerly advanced a nearly similar view, for Sir C. Bell says,9 " It has been maintained that what are called the ex- " ternal signs of passion, are only the concomitants of " those voluntary movements which the structure ren- " ders necessary." Mr. Spencer has also published 10 a valuable essay on the physiology of Laughter, in which he insists on " the general law that feeling " passing a certain pitch, habitually vents itself in " bodily action ;" and that " an overflow of nerve-force " undirected by any motive, will manifestly take first " the most habitual routes ; and if these do not suffice, " will next overflow into the less habitual ones." This ( 9 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 121. 10 'Essays, Scientific, Political, and Speculative,' Second Series, 1863, p. 111. There is a discussion on Laughter in the First Series of Essays, which discussion seems to me of very inferior value. 10 INTRODUCTION. law I believe to be of the highest importance in throw- ing light on onr subject.11 All the authors who have written on Expression, with the exception of Mr. Spencer — the great expoun- der of the principle of Evolution — appear to have been firmly convinced that species, man of course included, came into existence in their present condition. Sir C. Bell, being thus convinced, maintains that many of our facial muscles are " purely instrumental in ex- " pression ;" or are u a special provision " for this sole object. 12 But the simple fact that the anthropoid apes possess the same facial muscles as we do,13 renders it very improbable that these muscles in our case serve exclusively for expression ; for no one, I presume, would be inclined to admit that monkeys have been endowed with special muscles solely for exhibiting their hideous grimaces. Distinct uses, inde- pendently of expression, can indeed be assigned with much probability for almost all the facial muscles. Sir C. Bell evidently wished to draw as broad a distinction as possible between man and the lower animals ; and he consequently asserts that with " the 11 Since the publication of the essay just referred to, Mr. Spencer has written another, on " Morals and Moral Sentiments," in the 'Fort- nightly Eeview,' April 1, 1871, p. 426. He has, also, now published his final conclusions in vol. ii. of the second edit, of the ' Principles of Psychology,' 1872, p. 539. I may state, in order that I may not be accused of trespassing on Mr. Spencer's domain, that I announced in my ' Descent of Man,' that I had then written a part of the present volume : my first MS. notes on the subject of expression bear the date of the year 1838. 12 ' Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. pp. 98, 121, 131. 13 Professor Owen expressly states (Proc. Zoolog. Soc. 1830, p. 28) that this is the case with respect to the Orang, and specifies all the more important muscles which are well known to serve with man for the expression of his feelings. See, also, a description of several of the facial muscles in the Chimpanzee, by Prof. Macalister, in ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History,' vol. vii. May, 1871, p. 342. INTRODUCTION. 11 " lower creatures there is no expression but what may " be referred, more or less plainly, to their acts of " volition or necessary instincts." He further maintains that their faces " seem chiefly capable of expressing " rage and fear." u But man himself cannot express love and humility by external signs, so plainly as does a dog, when with drooping ears, hanging lips, flexuous body, and wagging tail, he meets his beloved master. Nor can these movements in the dog be explained by acts of volition or necessary instincts, any more than the beaming eyes and smiling cheeks of a man when he meets an old friend. If Sir C. Bell had been questioned about the expression of affection in the dog, he would no doubt have answered that this animal had been created with special instincts, adapt- ing him for association with man, and that all further enquiry on the subject was superfluous. Although Gratiolet emphatically denies 15 that any muscle has been developed solely for the sake of ex^ pression, he seems never to have reflected on the principle of evolution. He apparently looks at each species as a separate creation. So it is with the other writers on Expression. For instance, Dr. Duchenne, after speaking of the movements of the limbs, refers to those which give expression to the face, and remarks : 16 " Le createur n'a done pas eu a se " preoccuper ici des besoins de la mecanique ; il a " pu, selon sa sagesse, ou — que Ton me pardonne " cette maniere de parler — par une divine fantaisie, " mettre en action tel ou tel muscle, un seul ou plu- " sieurs muscles a la fois, lorsqu'il a voulu que les " signes caracteristiques des passions, meme les plus 14 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 121, 138. 15 'De la Physionomie,' pp. 12, 73. 16 ' Me'canisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' 8vo edit. p. 31. 12 INTRODUCTION. " fugaces, fussent ecrits passagerement sur la face de " l'homme. Ce langage de la physionomie une fois '* cree, il lui a suffi, pour le rendre universel et im- " muable, de donner a tout etre humain la faculte " instinctive d'exprimer toujours ses sentiments par " la contraction des memes muscles." Many writers consider the whole subject of Expression as inexplicable. Thus the illustrious physiologist Muller, says, 17 " The completely different expression of the " features in different passions shows that, according to * the kind of feeling excited, entirely different groups " of the fibres of the facial nerve are acted on. Of the " cause of this we are quite ignorant." No doubt as long as man and all other animals are viewed as independent creations, an effectual stop is put to our natural desire to investigate as far as possible the causes of Expression. By this doctrine, anything and everything can be equally well explained ; and it Has proved as pernicious with respect to Expression as to every other branch of natural history. With mankind some expressions, such as the bristling of the hair under the influence of extreme terror, or the un- covering of the teeth under that of furious rage, can hardly be understood, except on the belief that man once existed in a much lower and animal-like condition. The community of certain expressions in distinct though allied species, as in the movements of the same facial muscles during laughter by man and by various mon- keys, is rendered somewhat more intelligible, if we believe in their descent from a common progenitor. He who admits on general grounds that the structure and habits of all animals have been gradually evolved, will look at the whole subject of Expression in a new and interesting light. 17 ' Elements of Physiology,' English translation, vol. ii. p. 934. INTRODUCTION. 13 ; The study of Expression is difficult, owing to the movements being often extremely slight, and of a fleeting nature. A difference may be clearly per- ceived, and yet it may be impossible, at least I have found it so, to state in what the difference consists. When we witness any deep emotion, our sympathy is so strongly excited, that close observation is forgotten or rendered almost impossible ; of which fact I have had many curious proofs. Our imagination is another and still more serious source of error ; for if from the nature of the circumstances we expect to see any ex- pression, we readily imagine its presence. Notwith- standing Dr. Duchenne's great experience, he for a long time fancied, as he states, that several muscles contracted under certain emotions, whereas he ulti- mately convinced himself that the movement was confined to a single muscle. In order to acquire as good a foundation as possible, and to ascertain, independently of common opinion, how far particular movements of the features and gestures are really expressive of certain states of the mind, I have found the following means the most serviceable. In the first place, to observe infants; for they exhibit many emotions, as Sir 0. Bell remarks, " with extraordinary force ; " whereas, in after life, some of our expressions " cease to have the pure and simple " source from which they spring in infancy." 18 In the second place, it occurred to me that the insane ought to be studied, as they are liable to the strongest passions, and give uncontrolled vent to them. I had, myself, no opportunity of doing this, so I applied to Dr. Maudsley, and received from him an intro- duction to Dr. J. Crichton Browne, who has charge Anatomy of Expression,' 3rd edit. p. 198. 14 INTRODUCTION. of an immense asylum near Wakefield, and who, as I found, had already attended to the subject. This excellent observer has with unwearied kindness sent me copious notes and descriptions, with valuable sug- gestions on many points ; and I can hardly over-esti- mate the value of his assistance. I owe also, to the kindness of Mr. Patrick Nicol, of the Sussex Lunatic Asylum, interesting statements on two or three points. Thirdly, Dr. Duchenne galvanized, as we have al- ready seen, certain muscles in the face of an old man, whose skin was little sensitive, and thus produced various expressions which were photographed on a large scale. It fortunately occurred to me to show several of the best plates, without a word of explana- tion, to above twenty educated persons of various ages and both sexes, asking them, in each case, by what emotion or feeling the old man was supposed to be agitated; and I recorded their answers in the words which they used. Several of the expressions were instantly recognised by almost everyone, though de- scribed in not exactly the same terms ; and these may, I think, be relied on as truthful, and will hereafter be specified. On the other hand, the most widely different judgments were pronounced in regard to some of them. This exhibition was of use in another way, by convin- cing me how easily we may be misguided by our imagi- nation ; for when I first looked through Dr. Duchenne's photographs, reading at the same time the text, and thus learning what was intended, I was struck with admiration at the truthfulness of all, with only a few exceptions. Nevertheless, if I had examined them with- out any explanation, no doubt I should have been as much perplexed, in some cases, as other persons have been. Fourthly, I had hoped to derive much aid from the great masters in painting and sculpture, who are such INTRODUCTION. 15 close observers. Accordingly, I have looked at photo- graphs and engravings of many well-known works; but, with a few exceptions, have not thus profited. The reason no doubt is, that in works of art, beauty is the chief object; and strongly contracted facial muscles destroy beauty.1* The story of the composi- tion is generally told with wonderful force and truth by skilfully given accessories. Fifthly, it seemed to me highly important to ascer- tain whether the same expressions and gestures prevail, as has often been asserted without much evidence, with all the races of mankind, especially with those who have associated but little with Europeans. Whenever the same movements of the features or body express the same emotions in several distinct races of man, we may infer with much probability, that such expressions are true ones, — that is, are innate or instinctive. Con- ventional expressions or gestures, acquired by the individual during early lifer would probably have dif- fered in the different races, in the same manner as do their languages. Accordingly I circulated, early in the year 1867, the following printed queries with a request, which has been fully responded to, that actual observations,, and not memory, might be trusted. These queries were written after a considerable interval of time, during which my attention had been otherwise directed, and I can now see that they might have been greatly improved. To some of the later copies, I appended, in manuscript, a few additional remarks : — (1.) Is astonishment expressed by the eyes and mouth being opened wide, and by the eyebrows being raised ? (2.) Does shame excite a blush when the colour of the skin allows it to be visible ? and especially how low down the body does the blush extend ? 19 See remarks to this effect m Lessing's ' Laocoon,' translated by W. Boss, 1836, p. 19. 16 INTRODUCTION. (3.) When a man is indignant or defiant does he frown, hold his body and head erect, square his shoulders and clench his fists ? (4.) When considering deeply on any subject, or trying to under- stand any puzzle, does he frown, or wrinkle the skin beneath the lower eyelids ? (5.) When in low spirits, are the corners of the mouth depressed, and the inner corner of the eyebrows raised by that muscle which the French call the " Grief muscle " ? The eyebrow in this state becomes slightly oblique, with a little swelling at the inner end ; and the forehead is transversely wrinkled in the middle part, but not across the whole breadth, as when the eyebrows are raised in surprise. (6.) When in good spirits do the eyes sparkle, with the skin a little wrinkled round and under them, and with the mouth a little drawn back at the corners ? (7.) When a man sneers or snarls at another, is the corner of the upper lip over the canine or eye tooth raised on the side facing the man whom he addresses ? (8.) Can a dogged or obstinate expression be recognized, which is chiefly shown by the mouth being firmly closed, a lowering brow and a slight frown ? (9.) Is contempt expressed by a slight protrusion of the lips and by turning up the nose, with a slight expiration ? (10.) Is disgust shown by the lower lip being turned down, the upper lip slightly raised, with a sudden expiration, something like incipient vomiting, or like something spit out of the mouth ? (11.) Is extreme fear expressed in the same general manner as with Europeans ? (12.) Is laughter ever carried to such an extreme as to bring tears into the eyes ? (13.) When a man wishes to show that he cannot prevent something being done, or cannot himself do something, does he shrug his shoulders, turn inwards his elbows, extend outwards his hands and open the palms ; with the eyebrows raised ? (14.) Do the children when sulky, pout or greatly protrude the lips ? (15.) Can guilty, or sly, or jealous expressions be recognized? though I know not how these can be defined. (16.) Is the head nodded vertically in affirmation, and shaken la- terally in negation ? Observations on natives who have had little communication with Europeans would be of course the most valuable, though those made on any natives would be of much interest to me. General remarks on expression are of comparatively little value ; and memory is so deceptive that I earnestly beg it may not be trusted. A definite description of the countenance under any emotion or frame of mind, with a statement of the circumstances under which it occurred, would possess much value. INTRODUCTION. 17 To these queries I have received thirty-six answers from different observers, several of them missionaries or protectors of the aborigines, to all of whom I am deeply indebted for the great trouble which they have taken, and for the valuable aid thus received. I will specify their names, &c, towards the close of this chapter, so as not to interrupt my present remarks. The answers relate to several of the most distinct and savage races of man. In many instances, the circumstances have been recorded under which each expression was observed, and the expression itself described. In such cases, much confidence may be placed in the answers. When the answers have been simply yes or no, I have always received them with caution. It follows, from the information thus acquired, that the same state of mind is expressed throughout the world with remarkable uniformity; and this fact is in itself interesting, as evidence of the close simi- larity in bodily structure and mental disposition of all the races of mankind. Sixthly, and lastly, I have attended, as closely as I could, to the expression of the several passions in some of the commoner animals ; and this I believe to be of paramount importance, not of course for deciding how far in man certain expressions are characteristic of certain states of mind, but as affording the safest basis for generalisation on the causes, or origin, of the various movements of Expression. In observing animals, we are not so likely to be biassed by our imagination ; and we may feel safe that their expressions are not conventional. From the reasons above assigned, namely, the fleeting nature of some expressions (the changes in the features being often extremely slight) ; our sympathy being easily aroused when we behold any strong emotion, c 18 INTRODUCTION. and our attention thus distracted; our imagination deceiving us, from knowing in a vague manner what to expect, though certainly few of us know what the exact changes in the countenance are ; and lastly, even our long familiarity with the subject, — from all these causes combined, the observation of Expression is by no means easy, as many persons, whom I have asked to observe certain points, have soon discovered. Hence it is difficult to determine, with certainty, what are the movements of the features and of the body, which commonly characterize certain states of the mind. Nevertheless, some of the doubts and difficulties have, as I hope, been cleared away by the observation of infants, — of the insane, — of the different races of man, — of works of art, — and lastly, of the facial muscles under the action of galvanism, as effected by Dr. Duchenne. But there remains the much greater difficulty of understanding the cause or origin of the several ex- pressions, and of judging whether any theoretical explanation is trustworthy. Besides, judging as well as we can by our reason, without the aid of any rules, which of two or more explanations is the most satis- factory, or are quite unsatisfactory, I see only one way of testing our conclusions. This is to observe whether the same principle by which one expression can, as it appears, be explained, is applicable in other allied cases ; and especially, whether the same general prin- ciples can be applied with satisfactory results, both to man and the lower animals. This latter method, I am inclined to think, is the most serviceable of all. The difficulty of judging of the truth of any theoretical explanation, and of testing it by some distinct line of investigation, is the great drawback to that interest which the study seems well fitted to excite. INTRODUCTION. 19 Finally, with respect to my own observations, I may state that they were commenced in the year 1838 ; and, from that time to the present day, I have occa- sionally attended to the subject. At the above date, I was already inclined to believe in the principle of evolution, or of the derivation of species from other and lower forms. Consequently, when I read Sir C. Bell's great work, his view, that man had been created with certain muscles specially adapted for the expression of his feelings, struck me as unsatisfactory. It seemed probable that the habit of expressing our feelings by certain movements, though now rendered innate, had been in some manner gradually acquired. But to dis- cover how such habits had been acquired was perplexing in no small degree. The whole subject had to be viewed under a new aspect, and each expression de- manded a rational explanation. This belief led me to attempt the present work, however imperfectly it may have been executed. I will now give the names of the gentlemen to whom, as I have said, I am deeply indebted for information in regard to the expressions exhibited by various races of man, and I will specify some of the circumstances under which the observations were in each case made. Owim* to the great kindness and powerful influence of Mr. Wilson, of Hayes Place, Kent, I have received from Australia no less than thirteen sets of answers to my queries. This has been particularly fortunate, as the Australian aborigines rank amongst the most distinct of all the races of man. It will be seen that the observa- tions have been chiefly made in the south, in the out- lying parts of the colony of Victoria ; but some excel- lent answers have been received from the north. c 2 20 INTRODUCTION. Mr. Dyson Lacy has given me in detail some valu- able observations, made several hundred miles in the interior of Queensland. To Mr. K. Brough Smyth, of Melbourne, I am much indebted for observations made by himself, and for sending me several of the following letters, namely : — From the Kev. Mr. Hagenauer, of Lake Wellington, a missionary in Gippsland, Yictoria, who has had much experience with the natives. From Mr. Samuel Wilson, a landowner, residing at Langere- nong, Wimmera, Victoria. From the Rev. George Taplin, superintendent of the native Industrial Settle- ment at Port Macleay. From Mr. Archibald G. Lang, of Coranderik, Victoria, a teacher at a school where aborigines, old and young, are collected from all parts of the colony. From Mr. H. B. Lane, of Belfast, Vic- toria, a police magistrate and warden, whose observa- tions, as I am assured, are highly trustworthy. From Mr. Templeton Bunnett, of Echuca, whose station is on the borders of the colony of Victoria, and who has thus been able to observe many aborigines who have had little intercourse with white men. He compared his observations with those made by two other gentlemen long resident in the neighbourhood. Also from Mr. J. Bulmer, a missionary in a remote part of Gippsland, Victoria. I am also indebted to the distinguished botanist, Dr. Ferdinand Miiller, of Victoria, for some observations made by himself, and for sending me others made by Mrs. Green, as well as for some of the foregoing- letters. In regard to the Maoris of New Zealand, the Be v. J. W. Stack has answered only a few of my queries ; but the answers have been remarkably full, clear, and distinct, with the circumstances recorded under which the observations were made. INTRODUCTION. 21 The Kajah Brooke has given me some information with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo. Kespecting the Malays, I have been highly successful ; for Mr. F. Geach (to whom I was introduced by Mr. Wallace), during his residence as a mining engineer in the interior of Malacca, observed many natives, who had never before associated with white men. He wrote me two long letters with admirable and detailed observa- tions on their expression. He likewise observed the Chinese immigrants in the Malay archipelago. The well-known naturalist, H.M. Consul, Mr. Swinhoe, also observed for me the Chinese in their native country ; and he made inquiries from others whom he could trust. In India Mr. H. Erskine, whilst residing in his official capacity in the Admednugur District in the Bombay Presidency, attended to the expression of the inhabitants, but found much difficulty in arriving at any safe con- clusions, owing to their habitual concealment of all emotions in the presence of Europeans. He also obtained information for me from Mr. West, the Judge in Canara, and he consulted some intelligent native gentlemen on certain points. In Calcutta Mr. J. Scott, curator of the Botanic Gardens, carefully observed the various tribes of men therein employed during a con- siderable period, and no one has sent me such full and valuable details. The habit of accurate observation, gained by his botanical studies, has been brought to bear on our present subject. For Ceylon I am much indebted to the Kev. S. 0. Glenie for answers to some of my queries. Turning to Africa, I have been unfortunate with respect to the negroes, though Mr. Winwood Eeade aided me as far as lay in his power. It would have been comparatively easy to have obtained information in 22 INTRODUCTION. regard to the negro slaves in America ; but as they have long associated with white men, such observations would have possessed little value. In the southern parts of the continent Mrs. Barber observed the Kafirs and Fingoes, and sent me many distinct answers. Mr. J. P. Mansel Weale also made some observations on the natives, and procured forme a curious document, namely, the opinion, written in English, of Christian Gaika, brother of the Chief Sandilli, on the expressions of his fellow-countrymen. In the northern regions of Africa Captain Speedy, who long resided with the Abyssinians, answered my queries partly from memory and partly from observations made on the son of King Theodore, who was then under his charge. Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray attended to some points iu the expressions of the natives, as observed by them whilst ascending the Nile. On the great American continent Mr. Bridges, a catechist residing with the Fuegians, answered some few questions about their expression, addressed to him many years ago. In the northern half of the con- tinent Dr. Kothrock attended to the expressions of the wild Atnah and Espyox tribes on the Nasse Kiver, in North-Western America. Mr. Washington Matthews, Assistant-Surgeon in the United States Army, also ob- served with special care (after having seen my queries, as printed in the ' Smithsonian Keport ') some of the wildest tribes in the Western parts of the United States, namely, the Tetons, Grosventres, Mandans, and Assina- boines; and his answers have proved of the highest value. Lastly, besides these special sources of information, I have collected some few facts incidentally given in books of travels. INTRODUCTION. 23 As I shall often have to refer, more especially in the latter part of this volume, to the muscles of the human face, I have had a diagram (fig. 1) copied and reduced from Sir C. Bell's work, and two others, with more accurate de- tails (figs. 2 and 3), from Henle's well-known ' Handbuch der Systematischen Anatomie des Menschem' The same letters refer to the same muscles in all three figures, but the names are given of only the more important ones to which I shall have to allude. The facial muscles blend much together, and, as I am informed, hardly appear on a dissected face so distinct as they are here repre- sented. Some writers consider that these muscles con- sist of nineteen pairs, with one unpaired ; M but others make the number much larger, amounting even to fifty-five, according to Moreau. They are, as is ad- mitted by everyone who has written on the subject, very variable in structure ; and Moreau remarks that they are hardly alike in half-a-dozen subjects.21 They are also variable in function. Thus the power of un- covering the canine tooth on one side differs much in different persons. The power of raising the wings of the nostrils is also, according to Dr. Piderit, 22 variable in a remarkable degree ; and other such cases could be given. Finally, I must have the pleasure of expressing my obligations to Mr. Kejlander for the trouble which he has taken in photographing for me various expressions and gestures. I am also indebted to Herr Kindermann, of Hamburg, for the loan of some excellent negatives of crying infants ; and to Dr. Wallich for a charming one 20 Mr. Partridge in Todd's ' Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology,' vol. ii. p. 227. 21 ' La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, torn. iv. 1820, p. 274. On the number of the facial muscles, see voL iv. pp. 209-211. 23 ' Mimik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 91. 24 INTRODUCTION. INTRODUCTION. 25 Fig. 3. Diagram from Henle. A. Occipito-fron talis, or frontal muscle. b. Corrugator supercilii, or corrugator muscle. c. Orbicularis palpebrarum, or orbicu- lar muscles of the eyes. D. Pyramidalis nasi, or pyramidal muscle of the nose. b. Levator labii superioris alaeque nasi. f. Levator labii proprius. G. Zygomatic. H. Malaris. i. Little zygomatic. k. Triangularis oris, or depressor an- guli oris. l. Quadratus mentl. m. Risorius, part -of the Platysma myoides. of a smiling girl. I have already expressed my obliga- tions to Dr. Duchenne for generously permitting me to have some of his large photographs copied and reduced. All these photographs have been printed by the Helio- type process, and the accuracy of the copy is thus guaranteed. These plates are referred to by Eoman numerals. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. T. W. Wood for the extreme pains which he has taken in drawing from 26 INTRODUCTION. life the expressions of various animals. A distinguished artist, Mr. Kiviere, has had the kindness to give me two drawings of dogs — one in a hostile and the other in a humble and caressing frame of mind. Mr. A. May has also given me two similar sketches of dogs. Mr. Cooper has taken mueh care in cutting the blocks. Some of the photographs and drawings, namely, those by Mr. May, and those by Mr. Wolf of the Cynopithecus, were first reproduced by Mr. Cooper on wood by means of photography, and then engraved: by this means almost complete fidelity is ensured* ( 27 ) CHAPTER I. General Principles of Expression. The three chief principles stated — The first principle — Serviceable actions become habitual in association with certain states of the mind, and are performed whether or not of service in each par- ticular case — The force of habit — Inheritance — Associated habitual movements in man — Reflex actions — Passage of habits into reflex actions — Associated habitual movements in the lower animals — Concluding remarks. I will begin by giving the three Principles, which appear to me to account for most of the expressions and gestures involuntarily used by man and the lower animals, under the influence of various emotions and sensations.1 I arrived, however, at these three Prin- ciples only at the close of my observations. They will be discussed in the present and two following chapters in a general manner. Facts observed both with man and the lower animals will here be made use of; but the latter facts are preferable, as less likely to deceive us. In the fourth and fifth chapters, I will describe the special expressions of some of the lower animals ; and in the succeeding chapters those of man. Everyone will thus be able to judge for himself, how far my three principles throw light on the theory of the subject. It appears to me that so many expres- sions are thus explained in a fairly satisfactory manner, 1 Mr. Herbert Spencer (' Essays,' Second Series, 1863, p. 138) has drawn a clear distinction between emotions and sensations, the latter being u generated in our corporeal frame *^€l/A™,J */))% B-+4.4 /£*j l*u f^A^ui^ A* MrUhC v£l*Ja U^^j X/./5< the corners of " the mouth, and burst out crying." In some of these cases, the being spoken to or kindly greeted appears to suggest some fanciful and sorrowful notion; but in other cases an effort of any kind excites weeping, 8 ' The Origin of Civilization,' 1870, p. 355. 156 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. independently of any sorrowful idea. Patients suffering from acute mania likewise have paroxysms of violent crying or blubbering, in the midst of their incoherent ravings. We must not, however, lay too much stress on the copious shedding of tears by the insane, as being due to the lack of all restraint ; for certain brain- diseases, as hemiplegia, brain-wasting, and senile decay, have a special tendency to induce weeping. Weeping is common in the insane, even after a complete state of fatuity has been reached and the power of speech lost. Persons born idiotic likewise weep ; 9 but it is said that this is not the case with cretins. Weeping seems to be the primary and natural expres- sion, as we see in children, of suffering of any kind, whether bodily pain short of extreme agony, or mental distress. But the foregoing facts and common experience show us that a frequently repeated effort to restrain weeping, in association with certain states of the mind, does much in checking the habit. On the other hand, it appears that the power of weeping can be increased through habit ; thus the Kev. R. Taylor,10 who long resided in New Zealand, asserts that the women can voluntarily shed tears in abundance ; they meet for this purpose to mourn for the dead, and they take pride in crying u in the most affecting manner." A single effort of repression brought to bear on the lacrymal glands does little, and indeed seems often to lead to an opposite result. An old and experienced physician told me that he had always found that the only means to check the occasional bitter weeping of ladies who consulted him, and who themselves wished 9 See, for instance, Mr. Marshall's account of an idiot in Philosoph. Transact. 1864, p. 526. With respect to cretins, see Dr. Piderit, * Miraik und Physiognomik,' 1867, s. 61. 10 ' New Zealand and its Inhabitants/ 1855, p. 175. Chap. VI. WEEPING. 157 to desist, was earnestly to beg them not to try, and to assure them that nothing would relieve them so much as prolonged and copious crying. The screaming of infants consists of prolonged expi- rations, with short and rapid, almost spasmodic inspira- tions, followed at a somewhat more advanced age by sobbing. According to Gratiolet,11 the glottis is chiefly affected during the act of sobbing. This sound is heard "at the moment when the inspiration conquers " the resistance of the glottis, and the air rushes into the " chest." But the whole act of respiration is likewise spasmodic and violent. The shoulders are at the same time generally raised, as by this movement respiration is rendered easier. With one of my infants, when seventy-seven days old, the inspirations were so rapid and strong that they approached in character to sobbing ; when 138 days old I first noticed distinct sobbing, which subsequently followed every bad crying -fit. The respiratory movements are partly voluntary and partly involuntary, and I apprehend that sobbing is at least in part due to children having some power to command after early infancy their vocal organs and to stop their screams, but from having less power over their respiratory muscles, these continue for a time to act in an involuntary or spasmodic manner, after having been brought into violent action. Sobbing seems to be peculiar to the human species; for the keepers in the Zoological Gardens assure me that they have never heard a sob from any kind of monkey; though monkeys often scream loudly whilst being chased and caught, and then pant for a long time. We thus see that there is a close analogy between sob- bing and the free shedding of tears ; for with children, 11 • De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 126. 158 EXPKESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. sobbing does not commence during early infancy, but afterwards comes on rather suddenly and then follows every bad crying-fit, until the habit is checked with advancing years. On the cause of the contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming. — We have seen that infants and young children, whilst screaming, invariably close their eyes firmly, by the contraction of the surrounding muscles, so that the skin becomes wrinkled all around. With older children, and even with adults, whenever there is violent and unrestrained crying, a tendency to the contraction of these same muscles may be observed ; though this is often checked in order not to interfere with vision. Sir C. Bell explains12 this action in the following manner: — " During every violent act of expiration, " whether in hearty laughter, weeping, coughing, or " sneezing, the eyeball is firmly compressed by the " fibres of the orbicularis ; and this is a provision for " supporting and defending the vascular system of the " interior of the eye from a retrograde impulse com- " municated to the blood in the veins at that time. " When we contract the chest and expel the air, there " is a retardation of the blood in the veins of the neck * and head ; and in the more powerful acts of expul- " sion, the blood not only distends the vessels, but is " even regurgitated into the minute branches. Were " the eye not properly compressed at that time, and a " resistance given to the shock, irreparable injury might " be inflicted on the delicate textures of the interior of " the eye." He further adds, " If we separate the eye- 14 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' 1844, p. 106. See also his paper in the 'Philosophical Transactions,' 1822, p. 284, ibid. 1823, pp. 166 and 289. Also ' The Nervous System of the Human Body,' 3rd edit. 1836, p. 175. Chap. VI. WEEPING. 159 u lids of a child to examine the eye, while it cries and " struggles with passion, by taking off the natural " support to the vascular system of the eye, and means " of guarding it against the rush of blood then occur- " ring, the conjunctiva becomes suddenly filled with ••' blood, and the eyelids everted." Not only are the muscles round the eyes strongly contracted, as Sir C. Bell states and as I have often observed, during screaming, loud laughter, coughing, and sneezing, but during several other analogous actions. A man contracts these muscles when he violently blows his nose. I asked one of my boys to shout as loudly as he possibly could, and as soon as he began, he firmly contracted his orbicular muscles; I observed this re- peatedly, and on asking him why he had every time so firmly closed his eyes, I found that he was quite unaware of the fact: he had acted instinctively or unconsciously. It is not necessary, in order to lead to the contraction of these muscles, that air should actually be expelled from the chest ; it suffices that the muscles of the chest and abdomen should contract with great force, whilst by the closure of the glottis no air escapes. In violent vomiting or retching the diaphragm is made to descend by the chest being filled with air ; it is then held in this position by the closure of the glottis, " as well as by " the contraction of its own fibres." 13 The abdominal muscles now contract strongly upon the stomach, its proper muscles likewise contracting, and the contents are thus ejected. During each effort of vomiting " the " head becomes greatly congested, so that the features " are red and swollen, and the large veins of the face 13 See Dr. Brinton's account of the act of vomiting, in Todd's Cyclop, of Anatomy and Physiology, 1859, vol. v. Supplement, p. 318. 160 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. " and temples visibly dilated." At the same time, as I know from observation, the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted. This is likewise the case when the abdominal muscles act downwards with unusual force in expelling the contents of the intestinal canal. The greatest exertion of the muscles of the body, if those of the chest are not brought into strong action in expelling or compressing the air within the lungs, does not lead to the contraction of the muscles round the eyes. I have observed my sons using great force in gymnastic exercises, as in repeatedly raising their sus- pended bodies by their arms alone, and in lifting heavy weights from the ground, but there was hardly any trace of contraction in the muscles round the eyes. As the contraction of these muscles for the protection of the eyes during violent expiration is indirectly, as we shall hereafter see, a fundamental element in several of our most important expressions, I was extremely anxious to ascertain how far Sir C. Bell's view could be substantiated. Professor Donders, of Utrecht,14 well known as one of the highest authorities in Europe en vision and on the structure of the eye, has most kindly undertaken for me this investigation with the aid of the many ingenious mechanisms of modern science, and has published the results.15 He shows that during violent expiration the external, the intra-ocular, and the retro- 14 I am greatly indebted to Mr. Bowman for having introduced me to Prof. Donders, and for his aid in persuading this great physiologist to undertake the investigation of the present subject. I am likewise much indebted to Mr. Bowman for having given me, with the utmost kindness, information on many points. 15 This memoir first appeared in the * Nederlandsch Archief voor Genees en Natuurkunde,' Deel 5, 1870. It has been translated by Dr. W. D. Moore, under the title of " On the Action of the Eyelids in determination of Blood from expiratory effort," in • Archives of Medi- cine/ edited by Dr. L. S. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 20. Chap. VI. WEEPING. 161 ocular vessels of the eye are all affected in two ways, namely by the increased pressure of the blood in the arteries, and by the return of the blood in the veins being impeded. It is, therefore, certain that both the arteries and the veins of the eye are more or less dis- tended during violent expiration. The evidence in detail may be found in Professor Donders' valuable memoir. We see the effects on the veins of the head, in their prominence, and in the purple colour of the face of a man who coughs violently from being half choked. I may mention, on the same authority, that the whole eye certainly advances a little during each violent expiration. This is due to the dilatation of the retro-ocular vessels, and might have been expected from the intimate connection of the eye and brain ; the brain being known to rise and fall with each respiration, when a portion of the skull has been removed ; and as may be seen along the unclosed sutures of infants' heads. This also, I presume, is the reason that the eyes of a strangled man appear as if they were starting from their sockets. With respect to the protection of the eye during violent expiratory efforts by the pressure of the eyelids, Professor Donders concludes from his various obser- vations that this action certainly limits or entirely re- Iioves the dilatation of the vessels.16 At such times, he 18 Prof. Donders remarks (ibid. p. 28), that, " After injury to the eye, after operations, and in some forms of internal inflammation, we u attach great value to the uniform support of the closed eyelids, and " we increase this in many instances by the application of a bandage. u In both cases we carefully endeavour to avoid great expiratory pressure, * the disadvantage of which is well known." Mr. Bowman informs me that in the excessive photophobia, accompanying what is called scrofulous ophthalmia in children, when the light is so very painful that during weeks or months it is constantly excluded by the most forcible closure of the lids, he has often been struck on opening the M 162 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. adds, we not unfrequently see the hand involuntarily- laid upon the eyelids, as if the better to support and defend the eyeball. Nevertheless much evidence cannot at present be advanced to prove that the eye actually suffers injury from the want of support during violent expiration ; but there is some. It is "a fact that forcible expiratory " efforts in violent coughing or vomiting, and especially " in sneezing, sometimes give rise to ruptures of the " little (external) vessels " of the eye.17 With respect to the internal vessels, Dr. Gunning has lately recorded a case of exophthalmos in consequence of whooping- cough, which in his opinion depended on the rupture of the deeper vessels ; and another analogous case has been recorded. But a mere sense of discomfort would probably suffice to lead to the associated habit of pro- tecting the eyeball by the contraction of the sur-, rounding muscles. Even the expectation or chance of injury would probably be sufficient, in the same manner as an object moving too near the eye induces involuntary winking of the eyelids. We may, there- fore, safely conclude from Sir C. Bell's observations, and more especially from the more careful investiga- tions by Professor Donders, that the firm closure of the eyelids during the screaming of children is an action full of meaning and of real service. We have already seen that the contraction of the orbicular muscles leads to the drawing up of the upper lip, and consequently, if the mouth is kept widely lids by the paleness of the eye, — not an unnatural paleness, but an absence of the redness that might have been expected when the sur- face is somewhat inflamed, as is then usually the case ; and this paleness he is inclined to attribute to the forcible closure of the eyelids. V Donders, ibid. p. 36. Chap. VI. WEEPING. 163 open, to the drawing down of the corners by the con- traction of the depressor muscles. The formation of the naso-labial fold on the cheeks likewise follows from the drawing up of the upper lip. Thus all the chief ex- pressive movements of the face during crying apparently result from the contraction of the muscles round the eyes. We shall also find that the shedding of tears depends on, or at least stands in some connection with, the contraction of these same muscles. In some of the foregoing cases, especially in those of sneezing and coughing, it is possible that the contrac- tion of the orbicular muscles may serve in addition to protect the eyes from too severe a jar or vibration. I think so, because dogs and cats, in crunching hard bones, always close their eyelids, and at least sometimes in sneezing ; though dogs do not do so whilst barking loudly. Mr. Sutton carefully observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee, and he found that both always closed their eyes in sneezing and coughing, but not whilst screaming violently. I gave a small pinch of snuff to a monkey of the American division, namely, a Cebus, and it closed its eyelids whilst sneezing; but not on a subsequent occasion whilst uttering loud cries. Cause of the secretion of tears. — It is an important fact which must be considered in any theory of the secretion of tears from the mind being affected, that whenever the muscles round the eyes are strongly and involuntarily contracted in order to compress the blood-vessels and thus to protect the eyes, tears are secreted, often in sufficient abundance to roll down the cheeks. This occurs under the most opposite emotions, and under no emotion at all. The sole ex- ception, and this is only a partial one, to the existence of a relation between the involuntary and strong contraction of these muscles and the secretion of tears, M 2 164 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING: Chap. VI. is that of young infants, who, whilst screaming violently with their eyelids firmly closed, do not commonly weep until they have attained the age of from two to three or four months. Their eyes, however, become suffused with tears at a much earlier age. It would appear, as already remarked, that the lacrymal glands do not, from the want of practice or some other cause, come to full functional activity at a very early period of life. With children at a somewhat later age, crying out or wailing from any distress is so regularly accompanied by the shedding of tears, that weeping and crying are synonymous terms.18 Under the opposite emotion of great joy or amuse- ment, as long as laughter is moderate there is hardly any contraction of the muscles round the eyes, so that there is no frowning ; but when peals of loud laughter are uttered, with rapid and violent spasmodic expira- tions, tears stream down the face. I have more than once noticed the face of a person, after a paroxysm of violent laughter, and I could see that the orbicular muscles and those running to the upper lip were still partially contracted, which together with the tear- stained cheeks gave to the upper half of the face an expression not to be distinguished from that of a child still blubbering from grief. The fact of tears streaming down the face during violent laughter is common to all the races of mankind, as we shall see in a future chapter. In violent coughing, especially when a person is half- choked, the face becomes purple, the veins distended, the orbicular muscles strongly contracted, and tears 18 Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood (Diet, of English Etymology, 1859, vol. i. p. 410) says, " the verb to weep comes from Anglo-Saxon tcop, 44 the primary meaning of which is simply outcry." Chap. VI. WEEPING. 165 run down the cheeks. Even after a fit of ordinary coughing, almost every one has to wipe his eyes. In violent vomiting or retching, as I have myself expe- rienced and seen in others, the orbicular muscles are strongly contracted, and tears sometimes flow freely down the cheeks. It has been suggested to me that this may be due to irritating matter being injected into the nostrils, and causing by reflex action the secretion of tears. Accordingly I asked one of my informants, a surgeon, to attend to the effects of retching when nothing was thrown up from the stomach ; and, by an odd coincidence, he himself suffered the next morning from an attack of retching, and three days subsequently observed a lady under a similar attack ; and he is cer- tain that in neither case an atom of matter was ejected from the stomach ; yet the orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and tears freely secreted. I can also speak positively to the energetic contraction of these same muscles round the eyes, and to the coin- cident free secretion of tears, when the abdominal muscles act with unusual force in a downward direction on the intestinal canal. Yawning commences with a deep inspiration, fol- lowed by a long and forcible expiration; and at the same time almost all the muscles of the body are strongly contracted, including those round the eyes. During this act tears are often secreted, and I have seen them even rolling down the cheeks. I have frequently observed that when persons scratch some point which itches intolerably, they forcibly close their eyelids ; but they do not, as I believe, first draw a deep breath and then expel it with force; and I have never noticed that the eyes then become filled with tears; but I am not prepared to assert that this does not occur. The forcible closure of the eyelids is, per- 166 EXPRESSION OF SUFFERING : Chap. VI. haps, merely a part of that general action by which almost all the muscles of the body are at the same time rendered rigid. It is quite different from the gentle closure of the eyes which often accompanies, as Gratiolet remarks,19 the smelling a delicious odour, or the tasting a delicious morsel, and which probably originates in the desire to shut out any disturbing impression through the eyes. Professor Donders writes to me to the following effect : " I have observed some cases of a very curious affection " when, after a slight rub (attouchement), for example, " from the friction of a coat, which caused neither " a wound nor a contusion, spasms of the orbicular " muscles occurred, with a very profuse flow of tears, " lasting about an hour. Subsequently, sometimes after *' an interval of several weeks, violent spasms of the " same muscles re-occurred, accompanied by the secre- " tion of tears, together with primary or secondary red- " ness of the eye." Mr. Bowman informs me that he has occasionally observed closely analogous cases, and that, in some of these, there was no redness or inflamma- tion of the eyes. I was anxious to ascertain whether there existed in any of the lower animals a similar relation between the contraction of the orbicular muscles during violent expiration and the secretion of tears; but there are very few animals which contract these muscles in a prolonged manner, or which shed tears. The Macacus maurus, which formerly wept so copiously in the Zoo- logical Gardens, would have been a fine case for observa- tion ; but the two monkeys now there, and which are believed to belong to the same species, do not weep. Nevertheless they were carefully observed by Mr. De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 217. Chap. VI. WEEPING. 167 Bartlett and myself, whilst screaming loudly, and they seemed to contract these muscles; but they moved about their cages so rapidly, that it was difficult to observe with certainty. No other monkey, as far as I have been able to ascertain, contracts its orbicular tuscles whilst screaming. The Indian elephant is known sometimes to weep. >ir E. Tennent, in describing those which he saw cap- ered and bound in Ceylon, says, some " lay motionless " on the ground, with no other indication of suffering " than the tears which suffused their eyes and flowed " incessantly." Speaking of another elephant he says, When overpowered and made fast, his grief was most " affecting ; his violence sank to utter prostration, and " he lay on the ground, uttering choking cries, with " tears trickling down his cheeks." 20 In the Zoological Gardens the keeper of the Indian elephants positively asserts that he has several times seen tears rolling down the face of the old female, when distressed by the 2« < Ceylon,' 3rd edit. 1859, vol. ii. pp. 364, 376. I applied to Mr. Thwaites, in Ceylon, for further information with respect to the weep- ing of the elephant; and in consequence received a letter from the Rev. Mr. Glenie, who, with others, kindly observed for me a herd of recently captured elephants. These, when irritated, screamed violently ; but it is remarkable that they never when thus screaming contracted the muscles round the eyes. Nor did they shed tears ; and the native hunters asserted that they had never observed elephants weeping. Nevertheless, it appears to me impossible to doubt Sir E. Tenneut's distinct details about their weeping, supported as they are by the positive assertion of the keeper in the Zoological Gardens. It is certain that the two elephants in the Gardens, when they began to trumpet loudly, invariably contracted their orbicular muscles. I can reconcile these conflicting statements only by supposing that the recently captured elephants in Ceylon, from being enraged or frightened, desired to ob- serve their persecutors, aud consequently did not contract their orbicular muscles, so that their vision might not be impeded. Those seen weeping by Sir E. Tennent were prostrate, and had given up the contest in despair. The elephants which trumpeted in the Zoological Gardens at the word of command, were, of course, neither alarmed nor enraged. 168 EXPEESSION OF SUFFERING ! Chap. VI. removal of the young one. Hence I was extremely- anxious to ascertain, as an extension of the relation between the contraction of the orbicular muscles and the shedding of tears in man, whether elephants when screaming or trumpeting loudly contract these muscles. At Mr. Bartlett's desire the keeper ordered the old and the young elephant to trumpet ; and we repeatedly saw in both animals that, just as the trumpeting began, the orbicular muscles, especially the lower ones, were dis- tinctly contracted. On a subsequent occasion the keeper made the old elephant trumpet much more loudly, and invariably both the upper and lower orbicular muscles were strongly contracted, and now in an equal degree. It is a singular fact that the African elephant, which, however, is so different from the Indian species that it is placed by some naturalists in a distinct sub-genus, when made on two occasions to trumpet loudly, exhi- hibited no trace of the contraction of the orbicular muscles. From the several foregoing cases with respect to Man, there can, I think, be no doubt that the con- traction of the muscles round the eyes, during violent expiration or when the expanded chest is forcibly com- pressed, is, in some manner, intimately connected with the secretion of tears. This holds good under widely different emotions, and independently of any emotion. It is not, of course, meant that tears cannot be secreted without the contraction of these muscles ; for it is noto- rious that they are often freely shed with the eyelids not closed, and with the brows unwrinkled. The con- traction must be both involuntary and prolonged, as during a choking fit, or energetic, as during a sneeze. The mere involuntary winking of the eyelids, though often repeated, does not bring tears into the eyes. Nor does the voluntary and prolonged contraction of bserves,17 tends to contract slightly ; and this smooths the brow, removes every trace of a frown, arches the eye- brows a little, and raises the eyelids. Hence the Latin phrase, exporrigere frontem — to un wrinkle the brow — means, to be cheerful or merry. The whole expression of a man in good spirits is exactly the opposite of that of one suffering from sorrow. According to Sir C. Bell, " In " all the exhilarating emotions the eyebrows, eyelids, " the nostrils, and the angles of the mouth are raised. " In the depressing passions it is the reverse." Under the influence of the latter the brow is heavy, the eye- lids, cheeks, mouth, and whole head droop ; the eyes are dull ; the countenance pallid, and the respiration slow. In joy the face expands, in grief it lengthens. Whether the principle of antithesis has here come into play in producing these opposite expressions, in aid of the direct causes which have been specified and which are sufficiently plain, I will not pretend to say. With all the races of man the expression of good spirits appears to be the same, and is easily recognised. My informants, from various parts of the Old and New Worlds, answer in the affirmative to my queries on this head, and they give some particulars with respect to Hindoos, Malays, and New Zealanders. The brightness of the eyes of the Australians has struck four observers, and the same fact has been noticed with Hindoos, New Zealanders, and the Dyaks of Borneo. Savages sometimes express their satisfaction not only by smiling, but by gestures derived from the pleasure of eating. Thus Mr. Wedgwood18 quotes Petherick 17 ' La Physionomie,' par G. Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. iv. p. 224. See, also, Sir C. Bell, * Anatomy of Expression/ p. 172, for the quota- tion given below. 18 A ■ Dictionary of English Etymology/ 2nd edit. 1872, Introduc- tion, p. xliv. 214 EXPRESSION OF HIGH SPIRITS. Chap. VIII. that the negroes on the Upper Nile began a general rubbing of their bellies when be displayed his beads ; and Leichhardt says that the Australians smacked and clacked their mouths at the sight of his borses and bullocks, and more especially of his kangaroo dogs. The Greenlanders, "when they affirm anything with " pleasure, suck down air with a certain sound ;" 19 and this may be an imitation of the act of swallowing savoury food. Laughter is suppressed by the firm contraction of the orbicular muscles of the mouth, which prevents the great zygomatic and other muscles from drawing the lips backwards and upwards. The lower lip is also some- times held by the teeth, and this gives a roguish expression to the face, as was observed with the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman.20 The great zygomatic musole is sometimes variable in its course, and I have seen a young woman in whom the depressores anguli oris were brought into strong action in suppressing a smile ; but this by no means gave to her countenance a melan- choly expression, owing to the brightness of her eyes. Laughter is frequently employed in a forced manner to conceal or mask some other state of mind, even anger. We often see persons laughing in order to conceal their shame or shyness. When a person purses up his mouth, as if to prevent the possibility of a smile, though there is nothing to excite one, or nothing to prevent its free indulgence, an affected, solemn, or pedantic expres- sion is given; but of such hybrid expressions nothing more need here be said. In the case of derision, a real or pretended smile or laugh is often blended with the expression proper to contempt, and this may pass into 19 Oantz, quoted by Tylor, ' Primitive Culture,' 1871. vol. i. p. 169. 20 F. Lieber, ' Smithsonian Contributions,' 1851, vol. ii. p. 7. 5 Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 215 angry contempt or scorn. In such cases the meaning of the laugh or smile is to show the offending person that he excites only amusement. Love, tender feelings &c. — Although the emotion of ve, for instance that of a mother for her infant, is one f the strongest of which the mind is capable, it can hardly be said to have any proper or peculiar means of Ixpression ; and this is intelligible, as it has not habi- ually led to any special line of action. No doubt, as affection is a pleasurable sensation, it generally causes a gentle smile and some brightening of the eyes. A trong desire to touch the beloved person is commonly elt ; and love is expressed by this means more plainly than by any other.21 Hence we long to clasp in our arms those whom we tenderly love. We probably owe this desire to inherited habit, in association with the nursing and tending of our children, and with the mutual caresses of lovers. With the lower animals we see the same principle of pleasure derived from contact in association with love. Dogs and cats manifestly take pleasure in rubbing against their masters and mistresses, and in being rubbed or patted by them. Many kinds of monkeys, as I am assured by the keepers in the Zoological Gardens, delight in fondling and being fondled by each other, and by persons to whom they are attached. Mr. Bartlett has described to me the behaviour of two chimpanzees, rather older animals than those generally imported into this country, when they were first brought together. They sat opposite, touching each other with their much protruded lips ; and the one put his hand on the shoulder of the other. They then mutually folded 21 Mr. Bain remarks (' Mental and Moral Science/ 1868, p. 239), " Tenderness is a pleasurable emotion, variously stimulated, whose M effort is to draw human beings into mutual embrace." 216 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. VIII. each other in their arms. Afterwards they stood up, each with one arm on the shoulder of the other, lifted up their heads, opened their mouths, and yelled with delight. We Europeans are so accustomed to kissing as a mark of affection, that it might be thought to be innate in mankind ; but this is not the case. Steele was mis- taken when he said " Nature was its author, and it " began with the first courtship." Jemmy Button, the Fuegian, told me that this practice was unknown in his land. It is equally unknown with the New Zealanders, Tahitians, Papuans, Australians, Somals of Africa, and the Esquimaux.22 But it is so far innate or natural that it apparently depends on pleasure from close contact with a beloved person; and it is replaced in various parts of the world, by the rubbing of noses, as with the New Zealanders and Laplanders, by the rub- bing or patting of the arms, breasts, or stomachs, or by one man striking his own face with the hands or feet of another. Perhaps the practice of blowing, as a mark of affection, on various parts of the body may depend on the same principle.23 The feelings which are called tender are difficult to analyse ; they seem to be compounded of affection, joy, and especially of sympathy. These feelings are in themselves of a pleasurable nature, excepting when pity is too deep, or horror is aroused, as in hearing of a tor- tured man or animal. They are remarkable under our present point of view from so readily exciting the secre- tion of tears. Many a father and son have wept on 22 Sir J. Lubbock, ' Prehistoric Times,' 2nd edit. 1869, p. 552, gives full authorities for these statements. The quotation from Steele is taken from this work. 23 See a full account, with references, by E. B. Tylor, ' Researches into the Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 51. Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 217 meeting after a long separation, especially if the meet- ing has been unexpected. No doubt extreme joy by itself tends to act on the lacrymal glands ; but on such occasions as the foregoing vague thoughts of the grief which would have been felt had the father and son never met, will probably have passed through their minds; and grief naturally leads to the secretion of tears. Thus on the return of Ulysses : — " Telemachus Rose, and clung weeping round his father's breast. There the pent grief rained o'er them, yearning thus. ****** Thus piteously they wailed in sore unrest, And on their weepings had gone down the day, But that at last Telemachus found words to say." Worsley's Translation of the Odyssey, Book xvi. st. 27. So again when Penelope at last recognised her hus- band : — ^" Then from her eyelids the quick tears did start And she ran to him from her place, and threw Her arms about his neck, and a warm dew Of kisses poured upon him, and thus spake :" Book xxiii. st. 27. ne vivid recollection of our former home, or of long- past happy days, readily causes the eyes to be suffused with tears; but here, again, the thought naturally occurs that these days will never return. In such cases we may be said to sympathize with ourselves in our present, in comparison with our former, state. Sym- pathy with the distresses of others, even with the imaginary distresses of a heroine in a pathetic story, for whom we feel no affection, readily excites tears. So does sympathy with the happiness of others, as with that of a lover, at last successful after many hard trials in a well-told tale. 218 EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. Chap. VIII. Sympathy appears to constitute a separate or distinct emotion ; and it is especially apt to excite the lacrymal glands. This holds good whether we give or receive sympathy. Every one must have noticed how readily children burst out crying if we pity them for some small hurt. With the melancholic insane, as Dr. Crichton Browne informs me, a kind word will often plunge them into unrestrained weeping. As soon as we express our pity for the grief of a friend, tears often come into our own eyes. The feeling of sympathy is commonly explained by assuming that, when we see or hear of suffering in another, the idea of suffering is called up so vividly in our own minds that we ourselves suffer. But this explanation is hardly sufficient, for it does not account for the intimate alliance between sym- pathy and affection. We undoubtedly sympathize far more deeply with a beloved than with an indifferent person; and the sympathy of the one gives us far more relief than that of the other. Yet assuredly we can sympathize with those for whom we feel no affection. Why suffering, when actually experienced by our- selves, excites weeping, has been discussed in a former chapter. With respect to joy, its natural and universal expression is laughter ; and with all the races of man loud laughter leads to the secretion of tears more freely than does any other eause excepting distress. The suf- fusion of the eyes with tears, which undoubtedly occurs under great joy, though there is no laughter, can, as it seems to me, be explained through habit and associa- tion on the same principles as the effusion of tears from grief, although there is no screaming. Nevertheless it is not a little remarkable that sympathy with the dis- tresses of others should excite tears more freely than our own distress ; and this certainly is the case. Many Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF LOVE, ETC. 219 a man, from whose eyes no suffering of his own could wring a tear, has shed tears at the sufferings of a beloved friend. It is still more remarkable that sym- pathy with the happiness or good fortune of those whom we tenderly love should lead to the same result, whilst a similar happiness felt by ourselves would leave our eyes dry. We should, however, bear in mind that the long-continued habit of restraint which is so powerful in checking the free flow of tears from bodily pain, has not been brought into play in preventing a moderate effusion of tears in sympathy with the sufferings or happiness of others. Music has a wonderful power, as I have else wTh ere attempted to show,24 of recalling in a vague and inde- finite manner, those strong emotions which were felt during long-past ages, when, as is probable, our early progenitors courted each other by the aid of vocal tones. And as several of our strongest emotions — grief, great joy, love, and sympathy — lead to the free secre- tion of tears, it is not surprising that music should be apt to cause our eyes to become suffused with tears, especially when we are already softened by any of the tenderer feelings. Music often produces another pecu- liar effect. We know that every strong sensation, emotion, or excitement — extreme pain, rage, terror, joy, or the passion of love — all have a special tendency to cause the muscles to tremble; and the thrill or slight shiver which runs down the backbone and limbs of many persons when they are powerfully affected by music, seems to bear the same relation to the above trembling of the body, as a slight suffusion of tears from the power of music does to weeping from any strong and real emotion. 1 The Descent of Man,' vol. ii. p. 336. 220 EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. Chap. VIII. Devotion, — As devotion is, in some degree, related to affection, though mainly consisting of reverence, often combined with fear, the expression of this state of mind may here be briefly noticed. With some sects, both past and present, religion and love have been strangely combined ; and it has even been maintained, lamentable as the fact may be, that the holy kiss of love differs but little from that which a man bestows on a woman, or a woman on a man.25 Devotion is chiefly expressed by the face being directed towards the heavens, with the eyeballs upturned. Sir C. Bell remarks that, at the ap- proach of sleep, or of a fainting-fit, or of death, the pupils are drawn upwards and inwards ; and he believes that " when we are wrapt in devotional feelings, and " outward impressions are unheeded, the eyes are raised " by an action neither taught nor acquired ; " and that this is due to the same cause as in the above cases.26 That the eyes are upturned during sleep is, as I hear from Professor Donders, certain. With babies, whilst sucking their mother's breast, this movement of the eyeballs I often gives to them an absurd appearance of ecstatic •y delight ; and here it may be clearly perceived that a struggle is going on against the position naturally assumed during sleep. But Sir C. Bell's explanation of the fact, which rests on the assumption that certain muscles are more under the control of the will than others is, as I hear from Professor Donders, incorrect. As the eyes are often turned up in prayer, without the mind being so much absorbed in thought as to approach to the unconsciousness of sleep, the movement is probably a conventional one — the result of the 23 Dr. Maudsley has a discussion to this effect in his ' Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 85. 2(i * The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 103, and ' Philosophical Trans- actions,' 1823, p. 182. .kJ^L^^L. y. J Chap. VIII. EXPRESSION OF DEVOTION. 221 common belief that Heaven, the source of Divine power to which we pray, is seated above us. A humble kneeling posture, with the hands upturned d palms joined, appears to us, from long habit, a gesture so appropriate to devotion, that it might be thought to be innate ; but I have not met with any evidence to this effect with the various extra-Euro- pean races of mankind. During the classical period of Koman history it does not appear, as I hear from an excellent classic, that the hands were thus joined during prayer. Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood has apparently given 27 the true explanation, though this implies that the attitude is one of slavish subjection. " When the " suppliant kneels and holds up his hands with the palms "joined, he represents a captive who proves the com- " pleteness of his submission by offering up his hands to " be bound by the victor. It is the pictorial representa- " tion of the Latin dare manus, to signify submission." Hence it is not probable that either the uplifting of the eyes or the joining of the open hands, under the influ- ence of devotional feelings, are innate or truly express- ive actions ; and this could hardly have been expected, for it is very doubtful whether feelings, such as we should now rank as devotional, affected the hearts of men, whilst they remained during past ages in an uncivilized condition. 27 'The Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 146. Mr. Tylor ('Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 48) gives a more complex origin to the position of the hands during prayer. 222 REFLECTION. Chap. IX. CHAPTEK IX. Reflection —Meditation —Ill-temper — Sulkiness — Determination. The act of frowning — Reflection with an effort, or with tbe per- ception of something difficult or disagreeable — Abstracted meditation — Ill-temper — Moroseness — Obstinacy — Sulkiness and pouting — Decision or determination — The firm closure of the mouth. The corrugators, by their contraction, lower the eye- brows and bring- them together, producing vertical furrows on the forehead — that is, a frown. Sir C. Bell, who erroneously thought that the corrugator was peculiar to man, ranks it as " the most remarkable u muscle of the human face. It knits the eyebrows with " an energetic effort, which unaccountably, but irre- " sistibly, conveys the idea of mind." Or, as he else- where says, " when the eyebrows are knit, energy of " mind is apparent, and there is the mingling of thought * and emotion with the savage and brutal rage of the " mere animal." 1 There is much truth in these remarks, 1 'Anatomy of Expression,' pp. 137, 139. It is not surprising that the corrugators should have become much more developed in man than in the anthropoid apes; for they are brought into incessant action by him under various circumstances, and will have been strengthened and modified by the inherited effects of use. We have seen how important a part they play, together with the orbiculares, in protecting the eyes from being too much gorged with blood during violent expiratory movements. When the eyes are closed as quickly and as forcibly as possible, to save them from being injured by a blow, the corrugators contract. With savages or other men whose heads are uncovered, the eyebrows are continually lowered and contracted to serve Chap. IX. REFLECTION. 223 but hardly the whole truth. Dr. Duchenne has called the corrugator the muscle of reflection ; 2 but this name, without some limitation, cannot be considered as quite correct. A man may be absorbed in the deepest thought, and his brow will remain smooth until he encounters some obstacle in his train of reasoning, or is inter- rupted by some disturbance, and then a frown passes like a shadow over his brow. A half-starved man may think intently how to obtain food, but he probably will not frown unless he encounters either in thought or action some difficulty, or finds the food when obtained nauseous. I have noticed that almost everyone in- stantly frowns if he perceives a strange or bad taste in what he is eating. I asked several persons, without explaining my object, to listen intently to a very gentle tapping sound, the nature and source of which they all perfectly knew, and not one frowned ; but a man who joined us, and who could not conceive what we were all doing in profound silence, when asked to listen, frowned much, though not in an ill-temper, and said he could not in the least understand what we all wanted. Dr. Piderit,3 who has published remarks to the same effect, adds that stammerers generally frown in speaking ; and that a man in doing even so trifling a thing as pulling on a boot, frowns if he finds it too tight. Some persons are such habitual frowners, that as a shade against a too strong light ; and this is effected partly by the corrugators. This movement would have been more especially serviceable to man, as soon as his early progenitors held their heads erect. Lastly, Prof. Donders believes ('Archives of Medicine,' ed. by L. Beale, 1870, vol. v. p. 34), that the corrugators are brought into action in causing the eyeball to advance in accommodation for proximity in vision. 2 • Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende ill. 1 ' Minuk und Physiognomik/ s. 46. 221 KEFLECTION. Chap. IX. the mere effort of speaking almost always causes their brows to contract. Men of all races frown when they are in any way perplexed in thought, as I infer from the answers which I have received to my queries; but I framed them badly, confounding absorbed meditation with perplexed reflection. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Aus- tralians, Malays, Hindoos, and Kafirs of South Africa frown, when they are puzzled. Dobritzhoffer remarks that the Guaranies of South America on like occasions knit their brows.4 From these considerations, we may conclude that frowning is not the expression of simple reflection, how- ever profound, or of attention, however close, but of something difficult or displeasing encountered in a train of thought or in action. Deep reflection can, however, seldom be long carried on without some difficulty, so that it will generally be accompanied by a frown. Hence it is that frowning commonly gives to the countenance, as Sir C. Bell remarks, an aspect of intellectual energy. But in order that this effect may be produced, the eyes must be clear and steady, or they may be cast downwards, as often occurs in deep thought. The countenance must not be otherwise disturbed, as in the case of an ill-tempered or peevish man, or of one who shows the effects of prolonged suffering, with dulled eyes and drooping jaw, or who perceives a bad taste in his food, or who finds it difficult to perform some trifling act, such as threading a needle. In these cases a frown may often be seen, but it will be accom- panied by some other expression, which will entirely prevent the countenance having an appearance of in- tellectual energy or of profound thought. 4 * History of the Abipones,' Eng. translat: vol. ii. p. 59, as quoted by Lubbock, • Origin of Civilisation,' 1870, p. 355. Chap. IX. REFLECTION. 225 We may now inquire how it is that a frown should express the perception of something difficult or dis- agreeable, either in thought or action. In the same way as naturalists find it advisable to trace the em- bryological development of an organ in order fully to understand its structure, so with the movements of ex- pression it is advisable to follow as nearly as possible the same plan. The earliest and almost sole expression seen during the first days of infancy, and then often exhibited, is that displayed during the act of screaming ; and screaming is excited, both at first and for some time afterwards, by every distressing or displeasing sensation and emotion, — by hunger, pain, anger, jealousy, fear, &*. At such times the muscles round the eyes are strongly contracted; and this, as I believe, explains to a large extent the act of frowning during the remainder of our lives. I repeatedly observed my own infants, from under the age of one week to that of two or three months, and found that when a screaming-fit came on gradually, the first sign was the contraction of the corru gators, which produced a slight frown, quickly followed by the contraction of the other muscles round the eyes. When an infant is uncom- fortable or unwell, little frowns — as I record in my notes — may be seen incessantly passing like shadows over its face ; these being generally, but not always, followed sooner or later by a crying-fit. For instance, I watched for some time a baby, between seven and eight weeks old, sucking some milk which was cold, and there- fore displeasing to him ; and a steady little frown was maintained all the time. This was never developed into an actual crying-fit, though occasionally every stage of close approach could be observed. As the habit of contracting the brows has been followed by infants during innumerable generations, Q 226 REFLECTION. Chap. IX. at the commencement of every crying or screaming fit, it has become firmly associated with the incipient sense of something distressing or disagreeable. Hence under similar circumstances it would be apt to be continued during maturity, although never then de- veloped into a crying-fit. Screaming or weeping begins to be voluntarily restrained at an early period of life, whereas frowning is hardly ever restrained at any age. It is perhaps worth notice that with children much given to weeping, anything which perplexes their minds, and which would cause most other children merely to frown, readily makes them weep. So with certain classes of the insane, any effort of mind, however slight, which with an habitual frowner would cause a slight frown, leads to their weeping in an unrestrained manner. It is not more surprising that the habit of contracting the brows at the first perception of some- thing distressing, although gained during infancy, should be retained during the rest of our lives, than that many other associated habits acquired at an early age should be permanently retained both by man and the lower animals. For instance, full-grown cats, when feeling warm and comfortable, often retain the habit of alter- nately protruding their fore-feet with extended toes, which habit they practised for a definite purpose whilst sucking their mothers. Another and distinct cause has probably strengthened the habit of frowning, whenever the mind is intent on any subject and encounters some difficulty. Vision is the most important of all the senses, and during primeval times the closest attention must have been incessantly directed towards distant objects for the sake of obtaining prey and avoiding danger. I re- member being struck, whilst travelling in parts of South America, which were dangerous from the presence Chap. IX. REFLECTION. 227 of Indians, how incessantly, yet as it appeared uncon- sciously, the half-wild Gauchos closely scanned the whole horizon. Now, when any one with no covering on his head (as must have been aboriginally the case with mankind), strives to the utmost to distinguish in broad daylight, and especially if the sky is bright, a distant object, he almost invariably contracts his brows to prevent the entrance of too much light ; the lower eyelids, cheeks, and upper lip being at the same time raised, so as to lessen the orifice of the eyes. I have purposely asked several persons, young and old, to look, under the above circumstances, at distant objects, making them believe that I only wished to test the power of their vision ; and they all behaved in the manner just described. Some of them, also, put their open, flat hands over their eyes to keep out the excess of light. Gratiolet, after making some remarks to nearly the same effect,5 says, " Ce sont la des attitudes de vision I difficile." He concludes that the muscles round the eyes contract partly for the sake of excluding too much light (which appears to me the more important end), and partly to prevent all rays striking the retina, except those which come direct from the object that is scrutinized. Mr. Bowman, whom I consulted on this point, thinks that the contraction of the surrounding muscles may, in addition, " partly sustain the consensual " movements of the two eyes, by giving a firmer support while the globes are brought to binocular vision by their own proper muscles." As the effort of viewing with care under a bright light a distant object is both difficult and irksome, and 1 De la Physionomie,' pp. 15, 144, 146. Mr. Herbert Spencer accounts for frowning exclusively by the habit of contracting the brows as a shade to the eyes in a bright light : see ' Principles of Psychology/ 2nd edit. 1872, p. 54G. Q 2 228 MEDITATION. Chap. IX. as this effort has been habitually accompanied, during numberless generations, by the contraction of the eye- brows, the habit of frowning will thus have been much strengthened ; although, it was originally practised during infancy from a quite independent cause, namely, as the first step in the protection of the eyes during screaming. There is, indeed, much analogy, as far as the state of the mind is concerned, between intently scrutinizing a distant object, and following out an ob- scure train of thought, or performing some little and troublesome mechanical work. The belief that the habit of contracting the brows is continued wheni there is no need whatever to exclude too much light, receives support from the cases formerly alluded to, in which the eyebrows or eyelids are acted on under certain circumstances in a useless manner, from having! been similarly used, under analogous circumstances^ for a serviceable purpose. For instance, we voluntaril] close our eyes when we do not wish to see any object^ and we are apt to close them, when we reject a pn position, as if we could not or would not see it; oi when we think about something horrible. We raise our eyebrows when we wish to see quickly all rounc us, and we often do the same, when we earnestly desire to remember something ; acting as if we endea-j voured to see it. Abstraction. Meditation. — When a person is lost i thought with his mind absent, or, as it is sometim said, " when he is in a brown study," he does no frown, but his eyes appear vacant. The lower eyelids are generally raised and wrinkled, in the same manner as when a short-sighted person tries to distinguish distant object ; and the upper orbicular muscles are a the same time slightly contracted. The wrinkling of Chap. IX. MEDITATION. 229 the lower eyelids under these circumstances has been observed with some savages, as by Mr. Dyson Lacy with the Australians of Queensland, and several times by Mr. Geach with the Malays of the interior of Malacca. What the meaning or cause of this action may be, cannot at present be explained ; but here we have another instance of movement round the eyes in relation to the state of the mind. The vacant expression of the eyes is very peculiar, and at once shows when a man is completely lost in thought. Professor Donders has, with his usual kindness, investi- gated this subject for me. He has observed others in this condition, and has been himself observed by Pro- fessor Engelmann. The eyes are not then fixed on any object, and therefore not, as I had imagined, on some distant object. The lines of vision of the two eyes even often become slightly divergent ; the divergence, if the head be held vertically, with the plane of vision horizontal, amounting to an angle of 2° as a maximum. This was ascertained by observing the crossed double image of a distant object. When the head droops for- ward, as often occurs with a man absorbed in thought, owing to the general relaxation of his muscles, if the plane of vision be still horizontal, the eyes are neces- sarily a little turned upwards, and then the divergence is as much as 3°, or 3° 5' : if the eyes are turned still more upwards, it amounts to between 6° and 7°. Pro- fessor Donders attributes this divergence to the almost complete relaxation of certain muscles of the eyes, which would be apt to follow from the mind being wholly absorbed.6 The active condition of the muscles of the 6 Gratiolet remarks (De la Phys. p. 35), " Quand l'attention est ■ fixee sur quelque image interieure, l'ceil regarde dans le vide et ** s'associe automatiqnement a la contemplation de l'esprit." But this view hardly deserves to be called an explanation. 230 ILL-TEMPER. Chap. IX. eyes is that of convergence ; and Professor Donders re- marks, as bearing on their divergence during a period of complete abstraction, that when one eye becomes blind, it almost always, after a short lapse of time, deviates outwards ; for its muscles are no longer used in moving the eyeball inwards for the sake of binocular vision. Perplexed reflection is often accompanied by certain movements or gestures. At such times we commonly raise our hands to our foreheads, mouths, or chins ; but we do not act thus, as far as I have seen, when we are quite lost in meditation, and no difficulty is encountered. Plautus, describing in one of his plays7 a puzzled man, says, " Now look, he has pillared his chin upon " his hand." Even so trifling and apparently unmeaning a gesture as the raising of the hand to the face has been observed with some savages. Mr. J. Mansel Weale has seen it with the Kafirs of South Africa ; and the native chief Gaika adds, that men then "sometimes " pull their beards." Mr. Washington Matthews, who attended to some of the wildest tribes of Indians in the western regions of the United States, remarks that he has seen them when concentrating their thoughts, bring their "hands, usually the thumb and index " finger, in contact with some part of the face, com- " monly the upper lip." We can understand why the forehead should be pressed or rubbed, as deep thought tries the brain ; but why the hand should be raised to the mouth or face is far from clear. Ill-temper. — We have seen that frowning is the natural expression of some difficulty encountered, or of something disagreeable experienced either in thought or action, and he whose mind is often and readily affected 7 ' Miles Gloriosus/ act ii. sc. 2. Chap. IX. ILL-TEMPER. 231 in this way, will be apt to be ill-tempered, or slightly angry, or peevish, and will commonly show it by frowning. But a cross expression, due to a frown, may be counteracted, if the mouth appears sweet, from being habitually drawn into a smile, and the eyes are bright and cheerful. So it will be if the eye is clear and steady, and there is the appearance of earnest reflec- tion. Frowning, with some depression of the corners of the mouth, which is a sign of grief, gives an air of peevishness. If a child (see Plate IV., fig. 2) 8 frowns much whilst crying, but does not strongly contract in the usual manner the orbicular muscles, a well-marked expression of anger or even of rage, together with misery, is displayed. If the whole frowning brow be drawn much down- ward by the contraction of the pyramidal muscles of the nose, which produces transverse wrinkles or folds across the base of the nose, the expression becomes one of moroseness. Duchenne believes that the con- traction of this muscle, without any frowning, gives the appearance of extreme and aggressive hardness.9 But I much doubt whether this is a true or natural ex- pression. I have shown Duchenne's photograph of a young man, with this muscle strongly contracted by means of galvanism, to eleven persons, including some artists, and none of them could form an idea what was intended, except one, a girl, who answered correctly, " surly reserve." When I first looked at this photograph, knowing what was intended, my imagina- tion added, as I believe, what was necessary, namely, 8 The original photograph by Ilerr Kindermann is much more expressive than this copy, as it shows the frown on the brow mere plainly. 9 'Mecanisme de la Physionomie Humaine,' Album, Legende iv. figs. 16-18. 232 SULKINESS. Chap. IX. a frowning brow; and consequently the expression appeared to me true and extremely morose. A firmly closed mouth, in addition to a lowered and frowning brow, gives determination to the expression, or may make it obstinate and sullen. How it comes that the firm closure of the moith gives the appear- ance of determination will presently be discussed. An expression of sullen obstinacy has been clearly recog- nized by my informants, in the natives of six different regions of Australia. It is well marked, according to Mr. Scott, with the Hindoos. It has been recognized with the Malays, Chinese, Kafirs, Abyssinians, and in a conspicuous degree, according to Dr. Kothrock, with the wild Indians of North America, and according to Mr. D. Forbes, with the Aymaras of Bolivia. I have also observed it with the Araucanos of southern Chili. Mr. Dyson Lacy remarks that the natives of Australia, when in this frame of mind, sometimes fold their arms across their breasts, an attitude which may be seen with us. A firm determination, amounting to obsti- nacy, is, also, sometimes expressed by both shoulders being kept raised, the meaning of which gesture will be explained in the following chapter. With young children sulkiness is shown by pouting, or, as it is sometimes called, "making a snout."10 When the corners of the mouth are much depressed, the lower lip is a little everted and protruded; and this is likewise called a pout. But the pouting here re- ferred to, consists of the protrusion of both lips into a tubular form, sometimes to such an extent as to project as far as the end of the nose, if this be short. Pouting is generally accompanied by frowning, and sometimes by the utterance of a booing or whooing noise. This 10 Hensleigh Wedgwood on ' The Origin of Language,' 18G6, p. 78. Chap. IX. SULKINESS. 233 expression is remarkable, as almost the sole one, as far as I know, which is exhibited much more plainly during childhood, at least with Europeans, than during ma- turity. There is, however, some tendency to the protrusion of the lips with the adults of all races under the influence of great rage. Some children pout when they are shy, and they can then hardly be called sulky. From inquiries which I have made in several large families, pouting does not seem very common with European children; but it prevails throughout the world, and must be both common and strongly marked with most savage races, as it has caught the atten- tion of many observers. It has been noticed in eight different districts of Australia; and one of my in- formants remarks how greatly the lips of the children are then protruded. Two observers have seen pouting with the children of Hindoos ; three, with those of the Kafirs and Fingoes of South Africa, and with the Hottentots; and two, with the children of the wild Indians of North America. Pouting has also been observed with the Chinese, Abyssinians, Malays of Malacca, Dyaks of Borneo, and often with the New Zealanders. Mr. Mansel Weale informs me that he has seen the lips much protruded, not only with the children of the Kafirs, but with the adults of both sexes when sulky ; and Mr. Stack has sometimes observed the same thing with the men, and very frequently with the women of New Zealand. A trace of the same expression may occasionally be detected even with adult Europeans. We thus see that the protrusion of the lips, espe- cially with young children, is characteristic of sulkiness throughout the greater part of the world. This move- ment apparently results from the retention, chiefly 234 SULKINESS. Chap. IX. during youth, of a primordial habit, or from an occa- sional reversion to it. Young orangs and chimpanzees protrude their lips to an extraordinary degree, as described in a former chapter, when they are dis- contented, somewhat angry, or sulky ; also when they are surprised, a little frightened, and even when slightly pleased. Their mouths are protruded appa- rently for the sake of making the various noises proper to these several states of mind; and its shape, as I observed with the chimpanzee, differed slightly when the cry of pleasure and that of anger were uttered. As soon as these animals become enraged, the shape of the mouth wholly changes, and the teeth are ex- posed. The adult orang when wounded is said to emit " a singular cry, consisting at first of high notes, " which at length deepen into a low roar. While " giving out the high notes he thrusts out his lips " into a funnel shape, but in uttering the low notes " he holds his mouth wide open." ll With the gorilla, the lower lip is said to be capable of great elonga- tion. If then our semi-human progenitors protruded their lips when sulky or a little angered, in the same manner as do the existing anthropoid apes, it is not an anomalous, though a curious fact, that our children should exhibit, when similarly affected, a trace of the same expression, together with some tendency to utter a noise. For it is not at all unusual for animals to retain, more or less perfectly, during early youth, and subsequently to lose, characters which were aboriginally possessed by their adult progenitors, and which are still retained by distinct species, their near relations. Nor is it an anomalous fact that the children of 11 M tiller, as quoted by Huxley, ' Mau's Place in Nature,' 1S63, p. 38. Chap. IX. DECISION. 235 savages should exhibit a stronger tendency to protrude their lips, when sulky, than the children of civilized Europeans ; for the essence of savagery seems to consist in the retention of a primordial condition, and this occa- sionally holds good even with bodily peculiarities.12 It may be objected to this view of the origin of pouting, that the anthropoid apes likewise protrude their lips when astonished and even when a little pleased ; whilst with us this expression is generally confined to a sulky frame of mind. But we shall see in a future chapter that with men of various races surprise does sometimes lead to a slight protrusion of the lips, though great surprise or astonishment is more commonly shown by the mouth being widely opened. As when we smile or laugh we draw back the corners of the mouth, we have lost any tendency to protrude the lips, when pleased, if indeed our early progenitors thus expressed pleasure. A little gesture made by sulky children may here be noticed, namely, their a showing a cold shoulder." This has a different meaning, as, I believe, from the keeping both shoulders raised. A cross child, sitting on its parent's knee, will lift up the near shoulder, then jerk it away as if from a caress, and afterwards give a back- ward push with it, as if to push away the offender. I have seen a child, standing at some distance from any one, clearly express its feelings by raising one shoulder, giving it a little backward movement, and then turning away its whole body. Decision or determination. — The firm closure of the mouth tends to give an expression of determination 12 I have given several instances in my • Descent of Man,' vol. i, chap. iv. 236 DECISION. Chap. IX. or decision to the countenance. No determined man probably ever had an habitually gaping mouth. Hence, also, a small and weak lower jaw, which seems to indicate that the mouth is not habitually and firmly closed, is commonly thought to be characteristic of feebleness of character. A prolonged effort of any kind, whether of body or mind, implies previous de- termination; and if it can be shown that the mouth is generally closed with firmness before and during a great and continued exertion of the muscular system, then, through the principle of association, the mouth would almost certainly be closed as soon as any determined resolution was taken. Now several observers have noticed that a man, in commencing any violent mus- cular effort, invariably first distends his lungs with air, and then compresses it by the strong contraction of the muscles of the chest ; and to effect this the mouth must be firmly closed. Moreover, as soon as the man is compelled to draw breath, he still keeps his chest as much distended as possible. Various causes have been assigned for this manner of acting. Sir C. Bell maintains 13 that the chest is dis- tended with air, and is kept distended at such times, in order to give a fixed support to the muscles which are thereto attached. Hence, as he remarks, when two men are engaged in a deadly contest, a terrible silence prevails, broken only by hard stifled breathing. There is silence, because to expel the air in the utterance of any sound would be to relax the support for the muscles of the arms. If an outcry is heard, supposing the struggle to take place in the dark, we at once know that one of the two has given up in despair. Gratiolet admits14 that when a man has to struggle 13 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 190. M ' De la Physionomie,' pp. 118-121. Chap. IX. DECISION. 237 with another to his utmost, or has to support a great weight, or to keep for a long time the same forced atti- tude, it is necessary for him first to make a deep inspi- ration, and then to cease breathing ; but he thinks that Sir C. Bell's explanation is erroneous. He maintains that arrested respiration retards the circulation of the blood, of which I believe there is no doubt, and he adduces some curious evidence from the structure of the lower animals, showing, on the one hand, that a retarded circulation is necessary for prolonged muscular exertion, and, on the other hand, that a rapid circulation is neces- sary for rapid movements. According to this view, when we commence any great exertion, we close our mouths and stop breathing, in order to retard the circulation of the blood. Gratiolet sums up the subject by saying, " C'est la la vraie theorie de Teffort continu;" but how far this theory is admitted by other physiologists I do not know. Dr. Piderit accounts15 for the firm closure of the mouth during strong muscular exertion, on the principle that the influence of the will spreads to other muscles besides those necessarily brought into action in making any particular exertion; and it is natural that the muscles of respiration and of the mouth, from being so habitually used, should be especially liable to be thus acted on. It appears to me that there probably is some truth in this view, for we are apt to press the teeth hard together during violent exertion, and this is not re- quisite to prevent expiration, whilst the muscles of the chest are strongly contracted. Lastly, when a man has to perform some delicate and difficult operation, not requiring the exertion of any strength, he nevertheless generally closes his mouth and 15 ■ Minrik und Phy&iognomik,' s. 79. 238 DECISION. Chap. IX. ceases for a time to breathe ; but he acts thus in order that the movements of his chest may not disturb those of his arms. A person, for instance, whilst threading a needle, may be seen to compress his lips and either to stop breathing, or to breathe as quietly as possible. So it was, as formerly stated, with a young and sick chim- panzee, whilst it amused itself by killing flies with its knuckles, as they buzzed about on the window-panes. To perform an action, however trifling, if difficult, implies some amount of previous determination. There appears nothing improbable in all the above assigned causes having come into play in different degrees, either conjointly or separately, on various occa- sions. The result would be a well-established habit, now perhaps inherited, of firmly closing the mouth at the commencement of and during any violent and pro- longed exertion, or any delicate operation. Through the principle of association there would also be a strong tendency towards this same habit, as soon as the mind had resolved on any particular action or line of con- duct, even before there was any bodily exertion, or if none were requisite. The habitual and firm closure of the mouth would thus come to show decision of character ; and decision readily passes into obstinacy. Chap. X. ANGER. 239 CHAPTEK X. Hatred and Anger. Hatred — Rage, effects of on the system — Uncovering of the teeth — Rage in the insane — Anger and indignation — As expressed by the various races of man — Sneering and defiance — The un- covering of the canine tooth on one side of the face. If we have suffered or expect to suffer some wilful injury from a man, or if he is in any way offensive to us, we dislike him ; and dislike easily rises into hatred. Such feelings, if experienced in a moderate degree, are not clearly expressed by any movement of the body or features, excepting perhaps by a certain gravity of behaviour, or by some ill-temper. Few individuals, however, can long reflect about a hated person, without feeling and exhibiting signs of indignation or rage. But if the offending person be quite insignificant, we experience merely disdain or contempt. If, on the other hand, he is all-powerful, then hatred passes into terror, as when a slave thinks about a cruel master, or a savage about a bloodthirsty malignant deity.1 Most of our emotions are so closely connected with their ex- pression, that they hardly exist if the body remains passive — the nature of the expression depending in chief part on the nature of the actions which have been habitually performed under this particular state of the mind. A man, for instance, may know that his life is in the extremest peril, and may strongly desire to 1 See some remarks to this effect by Mr. Bain, ' The Emotions and the Will/ 2nd edit. 18G5, p. 127. 210 ANGER. Chap. X. save it ; yet, as Louis XVI. said, when surrounded by a fierce mob, " Am I afraid ? feel my pulse." So a man may intensely hate another, but until his bodily frame is affected, he cannot be said to be enraged. Bage. — I have already had occasion to treat of this emotion in the third chapter, when discussing the direct influence of the excited sensorium on the body, in com- bination with the effects of habitually associated actions. Rage exhibits itself in the most diversified manner. The heart and circulation are always affected ; the face reddens or becomes purple, with the veins on the fore- head and neck distended. The reddening of the skin has been observed with the copper-coloured Indians of South America,2 and even, as it is said, on the white cicatrices left by old wounds on negroes.3 Monkeys also redden from passion. With one of my own infants, under four months old, I repeatedly observed that the first symptom of an approaching passion was the rushing of the blood into his bare scalp. On the other hand, the action of the heart is sometimes so much impeded by great rage, that the countenance becomes pallid or livid,* and not a few men with heart-disease have dropped down dead under this powerful emotion. The respiration is likewise affected ; the chest heaves, and the dilated nostrils quiver.5 As Tennyson writes, " sharp breaths of anger puffed her fairy nostrils out." 2 Rengger, Naturgesch. der Saugethiere von Paraguay, 1830, s. 3. s Sir 0. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 96. On the other hand, Dr. Burgess (' Physiology of Blushing,' 1839, p. 31) speaks of the reddening of a cicatrix in a negress as of the nature of a blush. 4 Moreau and Gratiolet have discussed the colour of the face under the influence of intense passion : see the edit, of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. pp. 282 and 300 ; and Gratiolet, ' De la Physionomie,' p. 345. 5 Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression/ pp. 91, 107) has fully dis- cussed this subject. Moreau remarks (in the edit, of 1820 of ' La Physionomie, par Gr. Lavater,' vol. iv. p. 237,, and quotes Portal in Chap. X. ANGER. 241 Hence we have such expressions as " breathing out ven- " geance," and " fuming with anger." 6 The excited brain gives strength to the muscles, and at the same time energy to the will. The body is com- monly held erect ready for instant action, but sometimes it is bent forward towards the offending person, with the limbs more or less rigid. The mouth is generally closed with firmness, showing fixed determination, and the teeth are clenched or ground together. Such gestures as the raising of the arms, with the fists clenched, as if to strike the offender, are common. Few men in a great passion, and telling some one to begone, can resist acting as if they intended to strike or push the man violently away. The desire, indeed, to strike often becomes so intolerably strong, that inanimate objects are struck or dashed to the ground ; but the gestures frequently become altogether purposeless or frantic. Young children, when in a violent rage roll on the ground on their backs or bellies, screaming, kicking, scratching, or biting everything within reach. So it is, as I hear from Mr. Scott, with Hindoo children ; and, as we have seen, with the young of the anthropo- morphous apes. But the muscular system is often affected in a wholly different way ; for trembling is a frequent consequence confirmation, that asthmatic patients acquire permanently expanded nostrils, owing to the habitual contraction of the elevatory muscles of the wings of the nose. The explanation by Dr. Piderit (' Mimik und Physioguomik,' s. 82) of the distension of the nostrils, namely, to allow free breathing whilst the mouth is closed and the teeth clenched, does not appear to be nearly so correct as that by Sir 0. Bell, who attributes it to the sympathy (i.e. habitual co-action) of all the respiratory muscles. The nostrils of an angry man may be seen to become dilated, although his mouth is open. 6 Mr. Wedgwood, ' On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 76. He also observes that the sound of hard breathing " is represented by the " syllables puff, huff, whiff, whence a huff is a fit of ill-temper." R 242 ANGER. Chap. X. of extreme rage. The paralysed lips then refuse to obey the will, " and the voice sticks in the throat ;" 7 or it is rendered loud, harsh, and discordant. If there be much and rapid speaking, the mouth froths. The hair sometimes bristles; but I shall return to this subject in another chapter, when I treat of the mingled emo- tions of rage and terror. There is in most cases a strongly-marked frown on the forehead ; for this follows from the sense of anything displeasing or difficult, together with concentration of mind. But sometimes the brow, instead of being much contracted and lowered, remains smooth, with the glaring eyes kept widely open. The eyes are always bright, or may, as Homer expresses it, glisten with fire. They are sometimes bloodshot, and are said to protrude from their sockets — the result, no doubt, of the head being gorged with blood, as shown by the veins being distended. According to Gratiolet,8 the pupils are always contracted in rage, and I hear from Dr. Crichton Browne that this is the case in the fierce delirium of meningitis ; but the movements of the iris under the influence of the different emotions is a very obscure subject. Shakspeare sums up the chief characteristics of rage as follows : — " In peace there's nothing so becomes a man, As modest stillness and humility ; But when the blast of war blows in our ears, Then imitate the action of the tiger : Stiffen the sinews, summon up the blood, Then lend the eye a terrible aspect ; Now set the teeth, and stretch the nostril wide, Hold hard the breath, and bend up every spirit To his full height ! On, on, you noblest English." Henry V., act iii. sc. 1. 7 Sir 0. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95) has some excellent remarks on the expression of rage. 8 • De la Physionomie,' 18t>5, p. 346. Chap. X. ANGEE. 243 The lips are sometimes protruded during rage in a manner, the meaning of which I do not understand, unless it depends on our descent from some ape-like animal. Instances have been observed, not only with Europeans, but with the Australians and Hindoos. The lips, however, are much more commonly retracted, the grinning or clenched teeth being thus exposed. This has been noticed by almost every one who has written on expression.9 The appearance is as if the teeth were uncovered, ready for seizing or tearing an enemy, though there may be no intention of acting in this manner. Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen this grinning expression with the Australians, when quarrelling, and so has Gaika with the Kafirs of South America. Dickens,10 in speaking of an atrocious murderer who had just been caught, and was surrounded by a furious mob, describes " the people as jumping up one behind another, snarling " with their teeth, and making at him like wild beasts." Every one who has had much to do with young children must have seen how naturally they take to biting, when in a passion. It seems as instinctive in them as in young crocodiles, who snap their little jaws as soon as they emerge from the egg. A grinning expression and the protrusion of the lips appear sometimes to go together. A close observer says 9 Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 177. Gratiolet (De la ; Phys. p. 369) says, <; les dents se decouvrent, et imitent syrnbolique- ; " ment Taction de dec-hirer et de mordre." If, instead of using the vague j term symboliquement, Gratiolet had said that the action was a remnant 1 of a habit acquired during primeval times when our semi-human pro- i genitors fought together with their teeth, like gorillas and orangs at I the present day, he would have been more intelligible. Dr. Piderit ('Mimik,' &c, s. 82) also speaks of the retraction of the upper lip during i rage. In an engraving of one of Hogarth's wonderful pictures, passion is represented in the plainest manner by the open glaring eyes, frowning forehead, and exposed grinning teeth. 10 ' Oliver Twist,' vol. hi. p. 245. E 2 244 ANGER. Chap. X. that he has seen many instances of intense hatred (which can hardly be distinguished from rage, more or less sup- pressed) in Orientals, and once in an elderly English woman. In all these cases there "was a grin, not a " scowl — the lips lengthening, the cheeks settling * downwards, the eyes half-closed, whilst the brow " remained perfectly calm." u This retraction of the lips and uncovering of the teeth during paroxysms of rage, as if to bite the offender, is so remarkable, considering how seldom the teeth are used by men in fighting, that I inquired from Dr. J. Crichton Browne whether the habit was common in the insane whose passions are unbridled. He informs me that he has repeatedly observed it both with the insane and idiotic, and has given me the following illus- trations : — Shortly before receiving my letter, he witnessed an uncontrollable outbreak of anger and delusive jealousy in an insane lady. At first she vituperated her husband, and whilst doing so foamed at the mouth. Next she approached close to him with compressed lips, and a virulent set frown. Then she drew back her lips, espe- cially the corners of the upper lip, and showed her teeth, at the same time aiming a vicious blow at him. A second case is that of an old soldier, who, when he is requested to conform to the rules of the establishment, gives way to discontent, terminating in fury. He com- monly begins by asking Dr. Browne whether he is not ashamed to treat him in such a manner. He then swears and blasphemes, paces up and down, tosses his arms wildly about, and menaces any one near him. At last, as his exasperation culminates, he rushes up towards Dr. Browne with a peculiar sidelong movement, shaking The Spectator,' July 11, 18G8, p. 819. Chap. X, ANGER. 245 his doubled fist, and threatening destruction. Then his upper lip may be seen to be raised, especially at the corners, so that his huge canine teeth are exhibited. He hisses forth his curses through his set teeth, and his whole expression assumes the character of extreme ferocity. A similar description is applicable to another man, excepting that he generally foams at the mouth and spits, dancing and jumping about in a strange rapid manner, shrieking out his maledictions in a shrill fal- setto voice. Dr. Brown also informs me of the case of an epileptic idiot, incapable of independent movements, and who spends the whole day in playing with some toys ; but his temper is morose and easily roused into fierceness. When any one touches his toys, he slowly raises his head from its habitual downward position, and fixes his eyes on the offender, with a tardy yet angry scowl. If the annoyance be repeated, he draws back his thick lips and reveals a prominent row of hideous fangs (large canines being especially noticeable), and then makes a quick and cruel clutch with his open hand at the offend- ing person. The rapidity of this clutch, as Dr. Browne remarks, is marvellous in a being ordinarily so torpid that he takes about fifteen seconds, when attracted by any noise, to turn his head from one side to the other. If, when thus incensed, a handkerchief, book, or other article, be placed into his hands, he drags it to his mouth and bites it. Mr. Nicol has likewise described to me two cases of insane patients, whose lips are re- tracted during paroxysms of rage. Dr. Maudsley, after detailing various strange animal- like traits in idiots, asks whether these are not due to the reappearance of primitive instincts — " a faint echo " from a far-distant past, testifying to a kinship which " man has almost outgrown." He adds, that as every 246 ANGER. Chap. X. human brain passes, in the course of its development, through the same stages as those occurring in the lower vertebrate animals, and as the brain of an idiot is in an arrested condition, we may presume that it " will mani- " fest its most primitive functions, and no higher " functions." Dr. Maudsley thinks that the same view may be extended to the brain in its degenerated con- dition in some insane patients; and asks, whence come " the savage snarl, the destructive disposition, the " obscene language, the wild howl, the offensive habits, "displayed by some of the insane? Why should a " human being, deprived of his reason, ever become so " brutal in character, as some do, unless he has the " brute nature within him?" 12 This question must, as it would appear, be answered in the affirmative. Anger, indignation. — These states of the mind differ from rage only in degree, and there is no marked distinction in their characteristic signs. Under moderate anger the action of the heart is a little increased, the colour heightened, and the eyes become bright. The respiration is likewise a little hurried ; and as all the muscles serving for this function act in association, the wings of the nostrils are somewhat raised to allow of a free indraught of air ; and this is a highly charac- teristic sign of indignation. The mouth is commonly compressed, and there is almost always a frown on the brow. Instead of the frantic gestures of extreme rage, an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into an attitude ready for attacking or striking his enemy, whom he will perhaps scan from head to foot in defiance. He carries his head erect, with his chest well expanded, and the feet planted firmly on the ground. He holds his arms in various positions, with one or both »2 < Body and Mind,' 1870, pp. 51-53. Chap. X. ANGER. 247 elbows squared, or with the arms rigidly suspended by his sides. With Europeans the fists are commonly clenched.13 The figures 1 and 2 in Plate VI. are fairly good representations of men simulating indignation. Any one may see in a mirror, if he will vividly imagine that he has been insulted and demands an explanation in an angry tone of voice, that he suddenly and uncon- sciously throws himself into some such attitude. Rage, anger, and indignation are exhibited in nearly the same manner throughout the world ; and the fol- lowing descriptions may be worth giving as evidence of this, and as illustrations of some of the foregoing remarks. There is, however, an exception with respect to clenching the fists, which seems confined chiefly to the men who fight with their fists. With the Australians only one of my informants has seen the fists clenched. All agree about the body being held erect ; and all, with two ex- ceptions, state that the brows are heavily contracted. Some of them allude to the firmly-compressed mouth, the distended nostrils, and flashing eyes. According to the Rev. Mr. Taplin, rage, with the Australians, is expressed by the lips being protruded, the eyes being widely open ; and in the case of the women by their dancing about and casting dust into the air. Another observer speaks of the native men, when enraged, throwing their arms wildly about. I have received similar accounts, except as to the clenching of the fists, in regard to the Malays of the Malacca peninsula, the Abyssinians, and the natives of South Africa. So it is with the Dakota Indians of 13 Le Bran, in his well-known ' Conference snr l'Expression ' (* La Physionomie, pax Lavater,' edit, of 182i>, vol. ix. p. 268), remarks that anger is expressed by the clenching of the fists. See, to the same effect, Huschke, 4Mimices et Physiognomices, Frugmentum Physiologicum, 1824, p. 20. Also Sir C. Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 219. 248 ANGER. Chap. X. North America ; and, according to Mr. Matthews, they then hold their heads erect, frown, and often stalk away with long strides. Mr. Bridges states that the Fuegians, when enraged, frequently stamp on the ground, walk distractedly about, sometimes cry and grow pale. The Eev. Mr. Stack watched a New Zealand man and woman quarrelling, and made the following entry in his note-book : " Eyes dilated, body swayed violently " backwards and forwards, head inclined forwards, fists " clenched, now thrown behind the body, now directed " towards each other's faces." Mr. Swinhoe says that my description agrees with what he has seen of the Chinese, excepting that an angry man generally inclines his body towards his antagonist, and pointing at him, pours forth a volley of abuse. Lastly, with respect to the natives of India, Mr. J. Scott has sent me a full description of their gestures and expression when enraged. Two low-caste Ben- galees disputed about a loan. At first they were calm, but soon grew furious and poured forth the grossest abuse on each other's relations and progenitors for many generations past. Their gestures were very different from those of Europeans; for though their chests were expanded and shoulders squared, their arms remained rigidly suspended, with the elbows turned inwards and the hands alternately clenched and opened. Their shoulders were often raised high, and then again lowered. They looked fiercely at each other from under their lowered and strongly wrinkled brows, and their protruded lips were firmly closed. They approached each other, with heads and necks stretched forwards, and pushed, scratched, and grasped at each other. This protrusion of the head and body seems a common ges- ture with the enraged; and I have noticed it with degraded English women whilst quarrelling violently in CHAP. X. SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 219 the streets. In such cases it may be presumed that neither party expects to receive a blow from the other. A Bengalee employed in the Botanic Gardens was accused, in the presence of Mr. Scott, by the native overseer of having stolen a valuable plant. He listened silently and scornfully to the accusation ; his attitude erect, chest expanded, mouth closed, lips protruding, eyes firmly set and penetrating. He then defiantly maintained his innocence, with upraised and clenched hands, his head being now pushed forwards, with the eyes widely open and eyebrows raised. Mr. Scott also watched two Mechis, in Sikhim, quarrelling about their share of payment. They soon got into a furious pas- sion, and then their bodies became less erect, with their heads pushed forwards; they made grimaces at each other ; their shoulders were raised ; their arms rigidly bent inwards at the elbows, and their hands spasmo- dically closed, but not properly clenched. They con- tinually approached and retreated from each other, and often raised their arms as if to strike, but their hands were open, and no blow was given. Mr. Scott made similar observations on the Lepchas whom he often saw quarrelling, and he noticed that they kept their arms rigid and almost parallel to their bodies, with the hands pushed somewhat backwards and partially closed, but not clenched. Sneering, Defiance: Uncovering the canine tooth on one side. — The expression which I wish here to consider differs but little from that already described, when the lips are retracted and the grinning teeth exposed. The difference consists solely in the upper lip being retracted in such a manner that the canine tooth on one side of the face alone is shown ; the face itself being generally a little upturned and half averted from the person 250 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. Chap. X. causing offence. The other signs of rage are not neces- sarily present. This expression may occasionally be observed in a person who sneers at or defies another, though there may be no real anger ; as when any one is playfully accused of some fault, and answers, " I " scorn the imputation." The expression is not a common one, but I have seen it exhibited with perfect distinctness by a lady who was being quizzed by another person. It was described by Parsons as long ago as 1746, with an engraving, showing the uncovered canine on one side.14 Mr. Eejlander, without my having made any allusion to the subject, asked me whether I had ever noticed this expression, as he had been much struck by it. He has photographed for me (Plate IV. fig. 1) a lady, who sometimes unintentionally displays the canine on one side, and who can do so voluntarily with unusual distinctness. The expression of a half-playful sneer graduates into one of great ferocity when, together with a heavily frowning brow and fierce eye, the canine tooth is exposed. A Bengalee boy was accused before Mr. Scott of some misdeed. The delinquent did not dare to give vent to his wrath in words, but it was plainly shown on his countenance, sometimes by a defiant frown, and some- times " by a thoroughly canine snarl." When this was exhibited, "the corner of the lip over the eye-tooth, " which, happened in this case to be large and pro- " jecting, was raised on the side of his accuser, a strong " frown being still retained on the brow." Sir C. Bell states15 that the actor Cooke could express the most determined hate "when with the oblique cast of his 14 Transact. Philosoph. Soc., Appendix, 1746, p. 65. 15 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 136. Sir C. Bell calls (p. 131) the muscles which uncover the canines the snarling muscles. JP/,/K >*y/u> Chap. X. SNEERTNG AND DEFIANCE. 251 • eyes he drew up the outer part of the upper lip, and " discovered a sharp angular tooth." The uncovering of the canine tooth is the result of a double movement. The angle or corner of the mouth is drawn a little backwards, and at the same time a muscle which runs parallel to and near the nose draws up the outer part of the upper lip, and exposes the canine on this side of the face. The contraction of this muscle makes a distinct furrow on the cheek, and produces strong wrinkles under the eye, especially at its inner corner. The action is the same as that of a snarling dog; and a dog when pretending to fight often draws up the lip on one side alone, namely that facing his antagonist. Our word sneer is in fact the same as snarl, which was originally snar, the I " being merely an element implying continuance of action."16 I suspect that we see a trace of this same expression in what is called a derisive or sardonic smile. The lips are then kept joined or almost joined, but one corner of the mouth is retracted on the side towards the de- rided person ; and this drawing back of the corner is part of a true sneer. Although some persons smile more on one side of their face than on the other, it is not easy to understand why in cases of derision the smile, if a real one, should so commonly be confined to one side. I have also on these occasions noticed a slight twitching of the muscle which draws up the outer part of the upper lip ; and this movement, if fully carried out, would have uncovered the canine, and would have produced a true sneer. Mr. Bulmer, an Australian missionary in a remote part of Gipps' Land, says, in answer to my query about 18 Hensleigh Wedgwood, ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 1865, vol. iii. pp. 240, 243. 252 SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. Chap. X. the uncovering of the canine on one side, " I find that " the natives in snarling at each other speak with the * teeth closed, the upper lip drawn to one side, and a " general angry expression of face ; but they look direct " at the person addressed." Three other observers in Australia, one in Abyssinia, and one in China, answer my query on this head in the affirmative ; but as the expression is rare, and as they enter into no details, I am afraid of implicitly trusting them. It is, how- ever, by no means improbable that this animal-like expression may be more common with savages than with civilized races. Mr. Geach is an observer who may be fully trusted, and he has observed it on one occasion in a Malay in the interior of Malacca. The Eev. S. O. Glenie answers, "We have observed this " expression with the natives of Ceylon, but not often." Lastly, in North America, Dr. Eothrock has seen it with some wild Indians, and often in a tribe adjoining the Atnahs. Although the upper lip is certainly sometimes raised on one side alone in sneering at or defying any one, I do not know that this is always the case, for the face is commonly half averted, and the expression is often momentary. The movement being confined to one side may not be an essential part of the expression, but may depend on the proper muscles being incapable of move- ment excepting on one side. I asked four persons to endeavour to act voluntarily in this manner ; two could expose the canine only on the left side, one only on the right side, and the fourth on neither side. Neverthe- less it is by no means certain that these same persons, if defying any one in earnest, would not unconsciously have uncovered their canine tooth on the side, which- ever it might be, towards the offender. For we have seen that some persons cannot voluntarily make their Chap. X. SNEERING AND DEFIANCE. 253 eyebrows oblique, yet instantly act in this manner when affected by any real, although most trifling, cause of distress. The power of voluntarily uncovering the canine on one side of the face being thus often wholly lost, indicates that it is a rarely used and almost abortive action. It is indeed a surprising fact that man should possess the power, or should exhibit any ten- dency to its use; for Mr. Sutton has never noticed a snarling action in our nearest allies, namely, the monkeys in the Zoological Gardens, and he is positive that the baboons, though furnished with great canines, never act thus, but uncover all their teeth when feeling savage and ready for an attack. Whether the adult anthropomorphous apes, in the males of whom the canines are much larger than in the females, uncover them when prepared to fight, is not known. The expression here considered, whether that of a playful sneer or ferocious snarl, is one of the most curious which occurs in man. It reveals his animal descent; for no one, even if rolling on the ground in a deadly grapple with an enemy, and attempting to bite him, would try to use his canine teeth more than his other teeth. We may readily believe from our affinity to the anthropomorphous apes that our male semi- human progenitors possessed great canine teeth, and men are now occasionally born having them of unusually large size, with interspaces in the opposite jaw for their reception.17 We may further suspect, not- withstanding that we have no support from analogy, that our semi -human progenitors uncovered their canine teeth when prepared for battle, as we still do when feeling ferocious, or when merely sneering at or defy- ing some one, without any intention of making a real attack with our teeth. 17 « The Descent of Man,' 1871, vol. i. p. 126. 254 CONTEMPT. Chap. XL CHAPTEK XL Disdain — Contempt — Disgust — Guilt — Peide, etc. — Helplessness — Patience — Affirmation and Negation. Contempt, scorn and disdain, variously expressed — Derisive smile — Gestures expressive of contempt — Disgust — Guilt, deceit, pride, &e. — Helplessness or impotence — Patience — Obstinacy — Shrugging the shoulders common to most of the races of man — Signs of affirmation and negation. Scorn and disdain can hardly be distinguished from contempt, excepting that they imply a rather more angry frame of mind. Nor can they be clearly distinguished from the feelings discussed in the last chapter under the terms of sneering and defiance. Disgust is a sensa- tion rather more distinct in its nature, and refers to something revolting, primarily in relation to the sense of taste, as actually perceived or viridly imagined; and secondarily to anything which causes a similar feeling, through the sense of smell, touch, and even of eyesight. Nevertheless, extreme contempt, or as it is often called loathing contempt, hardly differs from dis- gust. These several conditions of the mind are, there- fore, nearly related ; and each of them may be exhibited in many different ways. Some writers have insisted chiefly on one mode of expression, and others on a different mode. From this circumstance M. Lemoine has argued * that their descriptions are not trustworthy. But we shall immediately see that it is natural that the feelings which we have here to consider should be ex- De la Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, p. 89. jPjl k Chap. XI. CONTEMPT. 255 pressed in many different ways, inasmuch as various habitual actions serve equally well, through the prin- ciple of association, for their expression. Scorn and disdain, as well as sneering and defiance, may be displayed by a slight uncovering of the canine tooth on one side of the face; and this movement appears to graduate into one closely like a smile. Or the smile or laugh may be real, although one of derision ; and this implies that the offender is so insignificant that he excites only amusement; but the amusement is generally a pretence. Gaika in his answers to my queries remarks, that contempt is commonly shown by his countrymen, the Kafirs, by smiling ; and the Kajah Brooke makes the same observation with respect to the Dyaks of Borneo, As laughter is primarily the expres- sion of simple joy, very young children do not, I believe, ever laugh in derision. The partial closure of the eyelids, as Duchenne2 insists, or the turning away of the eyes or of the whole body, are likewise highly expressive of disdain. These actions seem to declare that the despised person is not worth looking at, or is disagreeable to behold. The ac- companying photograph (Plate V. fig. 1) by Mr. Kejlan- der, shows this form of disdain. It represents a young lady, who is supposed to be tearing up the photograph of a despised lover. The most common method of expressing contempt is by movements about the nose, or round the mouth ; but the latter movements, when strongly pronounced, indi- cate disgust. The nose may be slightly turned up, which apparently follows from the turning up of the upper lip ; or the movement may be abbreviated into 2 ' Physionomie Hunoaine/ Album, Legende viii. p. 35. Gratiolet also speaks (De la Phys. 1865, p. 52) of tne turning away of the eyes and body. 256 CONTEMPT. Chap. XI. the mere wrinkling of the nose. The nose is often slightly contracted, so as partly to close the passage ; 3 and this is commonly accompanied by a slight snort or expiration. All these actions are the same with those which we employ when we perceive an offensive odour, and wish to exclude or expel it. In extreme cases, as Dr. Piderit remarks,4 we protrude and raise both lips, or the upper lip alone, so as to close the nostrils as by a valve, the nose being thus turned up. We seem thus to say to the despised person that he smells offen- sively,5 in nearly the same manner as we express to him by half-closing our eyelids, or turning away our faces, that he is not worth looking at. It must not, however, be supposed that such ideas actually pass through the mind when we exhibit our contempt ; but as whenever we have perceived a disagreeable odour or seen a disagreeable sight, actions of this kind have been performed, they have become habitual or fixed, and are now employed under any analogous state of mind. Various odd little gestures likewise indicate con- 3 Dr. W. Ogle, in an interesting paper on the Sense of Smell (' Medico-Chirurgical Transactions/ vol. liii. p. 268), shows that when we wish to smell carefully, instead of taking one deep nasal inspiration, we draw in the air by a succession of rapid short sniffs. If " the " nostrils be watched during this process, it will be seen that, so far " from dilating, they actually contract at each sniff. The contraction " does not include the whole anterior opening, but only the posterior u portion." He then explains the cause of this movement. When, on the other hand, we wish to exclude any odour, the contraction, I pre- sume, affects only the anterior part of the nostrils. 4 'Mimik und Physiognomik,' ss. 84, 93. Gratiolet (ibid. p. 155) takes nearly the same view with Dr. Piderit respecting the expression of contempt and disgust. 5 Scorn implies a strong form of contempt ; and one of the roots of the word ' scorn ' means, according to Mr. Wedgwood (Diet, of English Etymology, vol. iii. p. 125), ordure or dirt. A person who is scorned is treated like dirt. Chap. XI. DISGUST. 257 tempt; for instance, snapping ones fingers. This, as Mr. Tylor remarks,6 "is not very intelligible as we " generally see it ; but when we notice that the same " sign made quite gently, as if rolling some tiny object " away between the finger and thumb, or the sign of " flipping it away with the thumb-nail and forefinger, " are usual and well-understood deaf-and-dumb gestures, " denoting anything tiny, insignificant, contemptible, it " seems as though we had exaggerated and conven- " tionalized a perfectly natural action, so as to lose " sight of its original meaning. There is a curious " mention of this gesture by Strabo." Mr. Washington Matthews informs me that, with the Dakota Indians of North America, contempt is shown not only by move- ments of the face, such as those above described, but " conventionally, by the hand being closed and held " near the breast, then, as the forearm is suddenly " extended, the hand is opened and the fingers sepa- " rated from each other. If the person at whose ex- " pense the sign is made is present, the hand is moved " towards him, and the head sometimes averted from " him." This sudden extension and opening of the hand perhaps indicates the dropping or throwing away a valueless object. The term ' disgust,' in its simplest sense, means some- thing offensive to the taste. It is curious how readily this feeling is excited by anything unusual in the appearance, odour, or nature of our food. In Tierra del Fuego a native touched with his finger some cold pre- served meat which I was eating at our bivouac, and plainly showed utter disgust at its softness; whilst I felt utter disgust at my food being touched by a naked savage, though his hands did not appear dirty. A smear of soup on a man's beard looks disgusting, though • ■ Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1870, p. 45. S 258 DISGUST. Chap. XL there is of course nothing disgusting in the soup itself. I presume that this follows from the strong association in our minds between the sight of food, however circum- stanced, and the idea of eating it. As the sensation of disgust primarily arises in con- nection with the act of eating or tasting, it is natural that its expression should consist chiefly in movements round the mouth. But as disgust also causes annoyance, it is generally accompanied by a frown, and often by gestures as if to push away or to guard oneself against the offensive object. In the two photographs (figs. 2 and 3, on Plate V.) Mr. Kejlander has simulated this ex- pression with some success. With respect to the face, moderate disgust is exhibited in various ways ; by the mouth being widely opened, as if to let an offensive morsel drop out ; by spitting ; by blowing out of the protruded lips; or by a sound as of clearing the throat. Such guttural sounds are written ach or ugh ; and their utter- ance is sometimes accompanied by a shudder, the arms being pressed close to the sides and the shoulders raised in the same manner as when horror is experienced.7 Extreme disgust is expressed by movements round the mouth identical with those preparatory to the act of vomiting. The mouth is opened widely, with the upper lip strongly retracted, which wrinkles the sides of the nose, and with the lower lip protruded and everted as much as possible. This latter movement requires the contraction of the muscles which draw downwards the corners of the mouth.8 It is remarkable how readily and instantly retching 7 See, to this effect, Mr. Hensleigh Wedgwood's Introduction to the ' Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. 8 Duchenne believes that in the eversion of the lower lip, the corners are drawn downwards by the depressores anguli oris. Henle (Hand- buch d. Anat. des Menschen, 1858, B. i. s. 151) concludes that this is effected by the musculus quadratus menti. Chap. XI. DISGUST. 259 or actual vomiting is induced in some persons by the mere idea of having partaken of any unusual food, as of an animal which is not commonly eaten ; although there is nothing in such food to cause the stomach to reject it. When vomiting results, as a reflex action, from some real cause — as from too rich food, or tainted meat, or from an emetic — it does not ensue immediately, but generally after a considerable interval of time. Therefore, to account for retching or vomiting being so quickly and easily excited by a mere idea, the suspicion arises that our progenitors must formerly have had the power (like that possessed by ruminants and some other animals) of voluntarily rejecting food which dis- agreed with them, or which they thought would disagree with them; and now, though this power has been lost, as far as the will is concerned, it is called into involuntary action, through the force of a formerly well- established habit, whenever the mind revolts at the idea |of having partaken of any kind of food, or at anything disgusting. This suspicion receives support from the fact, of which I am assured by Mr. Sutton, that the imonkeys in the Zoological Gardens often vomit whilst jin perfect health, which looks as if the act were volun- tary. We can see that as man is able to communicate by language to his children and others, the knowledge jof the kinds of food to be avoided, he would have jlittle occasion to use the faculty of voluntary rejection ; so that this power would tend to be lost through disuse. As the sense of smell is so intimately connected with that of taste, it is not surprising that an excessively bad odour should excite retching or vomiting in some persons, quite as readily as the thought of revolting food does ; and that, as a further consequence, a moderately offensive odour should cause the various d 2 260 DISGUST. Chap. XI. expressive movements of disgust. The tendency to retch from a fetid odour is immediately strengthened in a curious manner by some degree of habit, though soon lost by longer familiarity with the cause of offence and by voluntary restraint. For instance, I wished to clean the skeleton of a bird, which had not been suffi- ciently macerated, and the smell made my servant and myself (we not having had much experience in such work) retch so violently, that we were compelled to desist. During the previous days I had examined some other skeletons, which smelt slightly ; yet the odour did not in the least affect me, but, subsequently for several days, whenever I handled these same skeletons, they made me retch. From the answers received from my correspondents it appears that the various movements, which have now been described as expressing contempt and disgust, pre- vail throughout a large part of the wrorld. Dr. Kothrock, for instance, answers with a decided affirmative with respect to certain wild Indian tribes of North America. Crantz says that when a Greenlander denies anything with contempt or horror he turns up his nose, and gives a slight sound through it.9 Mr. Scott has sent me a graphic description of the face of a young Hindoo at the sight of castor- oil, which he was compelled occa- sionally to take. Mr. Scott has also seen the same expression on the faces of high-caste natives who have approached close to some defiling object. Mr. Bridges says that the Fuegians " express contempt by shooting " out the lips and hissing through them, and by turning " up the nose." The tendency either to snort through the nose, or to make a noise expressed by ugh or ach, is noticed by several of my correspondents. Spitting seems an almost universal sign of contempt 9 As quoted by Tylor, « Primitive Culture,' 1871, vol. i. p. 169. Chap. XI. DISGUST. 261 or disgust ; and spitting obviously represents the rejec- tion of anything offensive from the mouth. Shakspeare makes the Duke of Norfolk say, " I spit at him — call " him a slanderous coward and a villain." So, again, Falstaff says, " Tell thee what, Hal, — if I tell thee a " lie, spit in my face." Leichhardt remarks that the Australians " interrupted their speeches by spitting, and " uttering a noise like pooh ! pooh ! apparently express- " ive of their disgust." And Captain Burton speaks of certain negroes " spitting with disgust upon the " ground." 10 Captain Speedy informs me that this is likewise the case with the Abyssinians. Mr. Geach says that with the Malays of Malacca the expression of disgust " answers to spitting from the mouth ; " and with the Fuegians, according to Mr. Bridges " to spit " at one is the highest mark of contempt." I never saw disgust more plainly expressed than on the face of one of my infants at the age of five months, when, for the first time, some cold water, and again a month afterwards, when a piece of ripe cherry was put into his mouth. This was shown by the lips and whole mouth assuming a shape which allowed the contents to run or fall quickly out ; the tongue being likewise protruded. These movements were accom- panied by a little shudder. It was all the more comical, as I doubt whether the child felt real disgust — the eyes and forehead expressing much surprise and considera- tion. The protrusion of the tongue in letting a nasty object fall out of the mouth, may explain how it is that lolling out the tongue universally serves as a sign of contempt and hatred.11 0 Both these quotations are given by Mr. H. Wedgwood, ' On the igin of Language,' 1866, p. 75. II This is stated to be the case by Mr. Tylor (Early Hist, of Mankind, d edit. 1870, p. 52) ; and he adds, " it is not clear why this should 2ml 262 GUILT. Chap. XI We have now seen that scorn, disdain, contempt, and disgust are expressed in many different ways, by move- ments of the features, and by various gestures ; and that these are the same throughout the world. They all ^ consist of actions representing the rejection or exclu- sion of some real object which we dislike or abhor, but which does not excite in us certain other strong emo- tions, such as rage or terror ; and through the force of habit and association similar actions are performed, ^ whenever any analogous sensation arises in our minds. Jealousy, Envy, Avarice, Revenge, Suspicion, Deceit, Slyness, Guilt, Vanity, Conceit, Ambition, Pride, Humility, &c. — It is doubtful whether the greater number of the above complex states of mind are revealed by any fixed expression, sufficiently distinct to be described or delineated. When Shakspeare speaks of Envy as lean- faced, or black, or pale, and Jealousy as " the green-eyed monster;" and when Spenser describes Suspicion as "foul, ill-favoured, and grim," they must have felt this diffi- culty. Nevertheless, the above feelings — at least many of them — can be detected by the eye ; for instance, con- ceit ; but we are often guided in a much greater degree than we suppose by our previous knowledge of the per- sons or circumstances. My correspondents almost unanimously answer in the affirmative to my query, whether the expression of guilt and deceit can be recognised amongst the various races of man ; and I have confidence in their answers, as they generally deny that jealousy can thus be recognised. In the cases in which details are given, the eyes are almost always referred to. The guilty man is said to avoid looking at his accuser, or to give him stolen looks. The eyes are said " to be turned askant," or " to waver from " side to side," or (i the eyelids to be lowered and partly Chap. XI. PRIDE. 263 " closed." This latter remark is made by Mr. Hagenauer ith respect to the Australians, and by Gaika with re- ct to the Kafirs. The restless movements of the eyes pparently follow, as will be explained when we treat of lushing, from the guilty man not enduring to meet the ze of his accuser. I may add, that I have observed guilty expression, without a shade of fear, in some of y own children at a very early age. In one instance e expression was unmistakably clear in a child two ears and seven months old, and led to the detection of his little crime. It was shown, as I record in my notes made at the time, by an unnatural brightness in the eyes, and by an odd, affected manner, impossible to describe. Slyness is also, I believe, exhibited chiefly by move- ments about the eyes ; for these are less under the control of the will, owing to the force of long-continued habit, than are the movements of the body. Mr. Herbert Spencer remarks,12 " When there is a desire to " see something on one side of the visual field without " being supposed to see it, the tendency is to check the " conspicuous movement of the head, and to make the " required adjustment entirely with the eyes ; which " are, therefore, drawn very much to one side. Hence, " when the eyes are turned to one side, while the face is f not turned to the same side, we get the natural " language of what is called slyness." Of all the above-named complex emotions, Pride, per- haps, is the most plainly expressed. A proud man exhibits his sense of superiority over others by holding his head and body erect. He is haughty Qiaut), or I high, and makes himself appear as large as possible ; so that metaphorically he is said to be swollen or puffed up 264 HELPLESSNESS \ Chap. XI. with pride. A peacock or a turkey-cock strutting about with puffed-up feathers, is sometimes said to be an em- blem of pride.13 The arrogant man looks down on others, and with lowered eyelids hardly condescends to see them ; or he may show his contempt by slight movements, such as those before described, about the nostrils or lips. Hence the muscle which everts the lower lip has been called the musculus superbus. In some photographs of patients affected by a monomania of pride, sent me by Dr. Crichton Browne, the head and body were held erect, and the mouth firmly closed. This latter action, expressive of decision, follows, I presume, from the proud man feeling perfect self-confidence in himself. The whole expression of pride stands in direct antithesis to that of humility ; so that nothing need here be said of the latter state o mind. Helplessness, Impotence: Shrugging the shoulders. — When a man wishes to show that he cannot do some- thing, or prevent something being done, he often raises with a quick movement both shoulders. At the same time, if the whole gesture is completed, he bends his elbows closely inwards, raises his open hands, turning them outwards, with the fingers separated. The head is often thrown a little on one side ; the eyebrows are elevated, and this causes wrinkles across the forehead. The mouth is generally opened. I may mention, in order to show how unconsciously the fea- tures are thus acted on, that though I had often inten- tionally shrugged my shoulders to observe how my 13 Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 351) makes this remark, and has some good observations on the expression of pride. See Sir C. Bell (' Anatomy of Expression,' p. Ill) on the action of the musculus superbus. Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 265 j arms were placed, I was not at all aware that my eye- brows were raised and mouth opened, until I looked at myself in a glass; and since then I have noticed the same movements in the faces of others. In the accom- panying Plate VI., figs. 3 and 4, Mr. Kejlander has suc- cessfully acted the gesture of shrugging the shoulders. Englishmen are much less demonstrative than the men of most other European nations, and they shrug their shoulders far less frequently and energetically than Frenchmen or Italians do. The gesture varies in all degrees from the complex movement, just described, to only a momentary and scarcely perceptible raising of both shoulders ; or, as I have noticed in a lady sitting in an arm-chair, to the mere turning slightly outwards of the open hands with separated fingers. I have never seen very young English children shrug their shoulders, but the following case was observed with care by a medical professor and excellent observer, and has been communicated to me by him. The father of this gen- tleman was a Parisian, and his mother a Scotch lady. His wife is of British extraction on both sides, and my informant does not believe that she ever shrugged her shoulders in her life. His children have been reared in England, and the nursemaid is a thorough English- woman, who has never been seen to shrug her shoulders. Now, his eldest daughter was observed to shrug her shoulders at the age of between sixteen and eighteen months ; her mother exclaiming at the time, " Look at " the little French girl shrugging her shoulders 1 " At first she often acted thus, sometimes throwing her head a little backwards and on one side, but she did not, as far as was observed, move her elbows and hands in the usual manner. The habit gradually wore away, and now, when she is a little over four years old, she is never seen to act thus. The father is told that he sometimes 266 HELPLESSNESS : Chap. XL shrugs his shoulders, especially when arguing with any- one ; but it is extremely improbable that his daughter should have imitated him at so early an age ; for, as he remarks, she could not possibly have often seen this gesture in him. Moreover, if the habit had been ac- quired through imitation, it is not probable that it would so soon have been spontaneously discontinued by this child, and, as we shall immediately see, by a second child, though the father still lived with his family. This little girl, it may be added, resembles her Parisian grandfather in countenance to an almost absurd degree. She also presents another and very curious resemblance to him, namely, by practising a singular trick. When she impatiently wants something, she holds out her little hand, and rapidly rubs the thumb against the index and middle finger: now this same trick was fre- quently performed under the same circumstances by her grandfather. This gentleman's second daughter also shrugged her shoulders before the age of eighteen months, and afterwards discontinued the habit. It is of course pos- sible that she may have imitated her elder sister ; but she continued it after her sister had lost the habit. She at first resembled her Parisian grandfather in a less degree than did her sister at the same age, but now in a greater degree. She likewise practises to the present time the peculiar habit of rubbing together, when im- patient, her thumb and two of her fore-fingers. In this latter case we have a good instance, like those given in a former chapter, of the inheritance of a trick or gesture ; for no one, I presume, will attribute to mere coincidence so peculiar a habit as this, which was com- mon to the grandfather and his two grandchildren who had never seen him. Considering all the circumstances with reference to Chap. XL SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 267 these children shrugging their shoulders, it can hardly be doubted that they have inherited the habit from their French progenitors, although they have only one quarter French blood in their veins, and although their grandfather did not often shrug his shoulders. There is nothing very unusual, though the fact is interesting, in these children having gained by inheritance a habit during early youth, and then discontinuing it ; for it is of frequent occurrence with many kinds of animals that certain characters are retained for a period by the young, and are then lost. As it appeared to me at one time improbable in a high degree that so complex a gesture as shrugging the shoulders, together with the accompanying move- ments, should be innate, I was anxious to ascertain whether the blind and deaf Laura Bridgman, who could not have learnt the habit by imitation, practised it. And I have heard, through Dr. Innes, from a lady who has lately had charge of her, that she does shrug her shoulders, turn in her elbows, and raise her eyebrows in the same manner as other people, and under the same circumstances. I was also anxious to learn whether this gesture was practised by the various races of man, espe- cially by those who never have had much intercourse with Europeans. We shall see that they act in this manner ; but it appears that the gesture is sometimes confined to merely raising or shrugging the shoulders, without the other movements. Mr. Scott has frequently seen this gesture in the Bengalees and Dhangars (the latter constituting a dis- tinct race) who are employed in the Botanic Garden at Calcutta ; when, for instance, they have declared that they could not do some work, such as lifting a heavy weight. He ordered a Bengalee to climb a lofty tree ; but the man, with a shrug of his shoulders and a lateral 268 HELPLESSNESS ! Chap. XI. shake of his head, said he could not. Mr. Scott know- ing that the man was lazy, thought he could, and in- sisted on his trying. His face now became pale, his arms dropped to his sides, his mouth and eyes were widely opened, and again surveying the tree, he looked askant at Mr. Scott, shrugged his shoulders, inverted his elbows, extended his open hands, and with a few quick lateral shakes of the head declared his inability. Mr. H. Erskine has likewise seen the natives of India shrugging their shoulders ; but he has never seen the elbows turned so much inwards as with us ; and whilst shrugging their shoulders they sometimes lay their un- crossed hands on their breasts. With the wild Malays of the interior of Malacca, and with the Bugis (true Malays, though speaking a different language), Mr. Geach has often seen this gesture. I presume that it is complete, as, in answer to my query descriptive of the movements of the shoulders, arms, hands, and face, Mr. Geach remarks, " it is performed " in a beautiful style." I have lost an extract from a scientific voyage, in which shrugging the shoulders by some natives (Micronesians) of the Caroline Archipelago in the Pacific Ocean, was well described. Capt. Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians shrug their shoulders, but enters into no details. Mrs. Asa Gray saw an Arab dragoman in Alexandria acting exactly as described in my query, when an old gentleman, on whom he attended, would not go in the proper direction which had been pointed out to him. Mr. Washington Matthews says, in reference to the wild Indian tribes of the western parts of the United States, " I have on a few occasions detected men using " a slight apologetic shrug, but the rest of the demon- " stration which, you describe I have not witnessed." Fritz Miiller informs me that he has seen the negroes Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. 269 in Brazil shrugging their shoulders ; but it is of course possible that they may have learnt to do so by imitating the Portuguese. Mrs. Barber has never seen this ges- ture with the Kafirs of South Africa ; and Gaika, judging from his answer, did not even understand what was meant by my description. Mr. Swinhoe is also doubtful about the Chinese ; but he has seen them, under the circumstances which would make us shrug our shoulders, press their right elbow against their side, raise their eyebrows, lift up their hand with, the palm directed towards the person addressed, and shake it from right to left. Lastly, with respect to the Australians, four of my informants answer by a simple negative, and one by a simple affirmative. Mr. Bunnett, who has had excellent opportunities for observation on the borders of the Colony of Victoria, also answers by a " yes," adding that the gesture is performed " in a more "subdued and less demonstrative manner than is the " case with civilized nations." This circumstance may account for its not having been noticed by four of my informants. These statements, relating to Europeans, Hindoos, the hill-tribes of India, Malays, Micronesians, Abyssinians, Arabs, Negroes, Indians of North America, and appa- rently to the Australians — many of these natives having had scarcely any intercourse with. Europeans — are suffi- cient to show that shrugging the shoulders, accompanied in some cases by the other proper movements, is a ges- ture natural to mankind. This gesture implies an unintentional or unavoidable action on our own part, or one that we cannot perform ; or an action performed by another person which we cannot prevent. It accompanies such speeches as, " It " was not my fault ;" " It is impossible for me to grant H this favour ;" " He must follow his own course, I can- 270 HELPLESSNESS : Chap. XI. " not stop him." Shrugging the shoulders likewise ex- presses patience, or the absence of any intention to resist. Hence the muscles which raise the shoulders are some- times called, as I have been informed by an artist, " the " patience muscles." Shylock the Jew, says, " Signor Antonio, many a time and oft In the Rialto have you rated me About my monies and usances ; Still have I borne it with a patient shrug." Merchant of Venice, act i. sc. 3. Sir C. Bell has given u a life-like figure of a man, who is shrinking back from some terrible danger, and is on the point of screaming out in abject terror. He is represented with his shoulders lifted up almost to his ears ; and this at once declares that there is no thought of resistance. As shrugging the shoulders generally implies " I " cannot do this or that," so by a slight change, it sometimes implies "I won't do it." The movement then expresses a dogged determination not to act. Olmsted describes15 an Indian in Texas as giving a great shrug to his shoulders, when he was informed that a party of men were Germans and not Americans, thus expressing that he would have nothing to do with them. Sulky and obstinate children may be seen with both their shoulders raised high up; but this movement is not associated with the others which generally accompany a true shrug. An excellent ob- server16 in describing a young man who was deter- mined not to yield to his father's desire, says, " He " thrust his hands deep down into his pockets, and " set up his shoulders to his ears, which was a good 14 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 166. 15 ' Journey through Texas/ p. 352. 16 Mrs. Oliphant, ' The Browulows,' vol. ii. p. 206. Chap. XI. SHRUGGING THE SHOULDERS. ' 271 " warning that, come right or wrong, this rock should " fly from its firm base as soon as Jack would ; and " that any remonstrance on the subject was purely " futile." As soon as the son got his own way, he " put his shoulders into their natural position." Eesignation is sometimes shown by the open hands being placed, one over the other, on the lower part of the body. I should not have thought this little gesture worth even a passing notice, had not Dr. W. Ogle re- marked to me that he had two or three times observed it in patients who were preparing for operations under chloroform. They exhibited no great fear, but seemed to declare by this posture of their hands, that they had made up their minds, and were resigned to the inevi- table. We may now inquire why men in all parts of the world when they feel, — whether or not they wish to show this feeling, — that they cannot or will not do something, or will not resist something if done by another, shrug their shoulders, at the same time often bending in their elbows, showing the palms of their hands with extended fingers, often throwing their heads a little on one side, raising their eyebrows, and opening their mouths. These states of the mind are either simply passive, or show a determination not to act. None of the above movements are of the least service. The explanation lies, I cannot doubt, in the principle of unconscious antithesis. This principle here seems to come into play as clearly as in the case of a dog, who, when feeling savage, puts himself in the proper attitude for attacking and for making himself appear terrible to his enemy ; but as soon as he feels affectionate, throws his whole body into a directly opposite attitude, though this is of no direct use to him. Let it be observed how an indignant man, who resents, 272 HELPLESSNESS ! Chap. XL and will not submit to some injury, holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, and expands his chest. He often clenches his fists, and puts one or both arms in the proper position for attack or defence, with the muscles of his limbs rigid. He frowns, — that is, he contracts and lowers his brows, — and, being determined, closes his mouth. The actions and attitude of a helpless man are, in every one of these respects, exactly the reverse. In Plate VI. we may imagine one of the figures on the left side to have just said, " What do you mean by " insulting me?" and one of the figures on the right side to answer, " I really could not help it." The help- less man unconsciously contracts the muscles of his fore- head which are antagonistic to those that cause a frown, and thus raises his eyebrows ; at the same time he re- laxes the muscles about the mouth, so that the lower jaw drops. The antithesis is complete in every detail, not only in the movements of the features, but in the position of the limbs and in the attitude of the whole body, as may be seen in the accompanying plate. As the helpless or apologetic man often wishes to show his state of mind, he then acts in a conspicuous or demonstrative manner. In accordance with the fact that squaring the elbows and clenching the fists are gestures by no means uni- versal with the men of all races, when they feel indig- nant and are prepared to attack their enemy, so it appears that a helpless or apologetic frame of mind is expressed in many parts of the world by merely shrug- ging the shoulders, without turning inwards the elbows and opening the hands. The man or child who is obstinate, or one who is resigned to some great mis- fortune, has in neither case any idea of resistance by active means ; and he expresses this state of mind, by simply keeping his shoulders raised ; or he may possibly fold his arms across his breast. Chap. XI. SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION, ETC. 273 Signs of affirmation or approval, and of negation or disapproval: nodding and shaking the head. — I was curious to ascertain how far the common signs used by us in affirmation and negation were general throughout the world. These signs are indeed to a certain extent expressive of our feelings, as we give a vertical nod of approval with a smile to our children, when we approve of their conduct ; and shake our heads laterally with a frown, when we disapprove. With infants, the first act of denial consists in refusing food ; and I repeatedly noticed with my own infants, that they did so by withdrawing their heads laterally from the breast, or from anything offered them in a spoon. In accepting food and taking it into their mouths, they incline their heads forwards. Since making these observations I have been informed that the same idea had occurred to Charma.17 It deserves notice that in accepting or taking food, there is only a single movement forward, and a single nod implies an affirmation. On the other hand, in refusing food, especially if it be pressed on them, children frequently move their heads several times from side to side, as we do in shaking our heads in negation. Moreover, in the case of refusal, the head is not rarely thrown backwards, or the mouth is closed, ; so that these movements might likewise come to serve as signs of negation. Mr. Wedgwood remarks on this subject,18 that " when the voice is exerted with closed 1 " teeth or lips, it produces the sound of the letter n or " m. Hence we may account for the use of the particle " ne to signify negation, and possibly also of the Greek " fjLT] in the same sense." 1T ' Essai sur le Langage,' 2nd edit. 1846. I am much indebted to Miss Wedgwood for having given me this information, with an extract from the work. 18 ' On the Origin of Language,' 1866, p. 91. 274 SIGNS OP AFFIRMATION Chap. M That these signs are innate or instinctive, at least with Anglo-Saxons, is rendered highly probable by tfl blind and deaf Laura Bridgman "constantly accom« " panying her yes with the common affirmative nod, " and her no with our negative shake of the heal Had not Mr. Lieber stated to the contrary,19 I should have imagined that these gestures might have bfl acquired or learnt by her, considering her wondeijl sense of touch and appreciation of the movements^ others. With microcephalous idiots, who are so I graded that they never learn to speak, one of then is described by Vogt,20 as answering, when aska whether he wished for more food or drink, by inclinM or shaking his head. Schmalz, in his remarkable 1 sertation on the education of the deaf and dumb, as we] as of children raised only one degree above idiotcj assumes that they can always both make and undei stand the common signs of affirmation and negation.1*. Nevertheless if we look to the various races of mai these signs are not so universally employed as I sho|| have expected ; yet they seem too general to be ranlj as altogether conventional or artificial. My informal assert that both signs are used by the Malays, by ■ natives of Ceylon, the Chinese, the negroes of 1 Guinea coast, and, according to Glaika, by the Kafiri South Africa, though with these latter people ] Barber has never seen a lateral shake used as a nej tive. With respect to the Australians, seven obsem agree that a nod is given in affirmation ; five ag] about a lateral shake in negation, accompanied or i 19 ' On the Vocal Sounds of L. Bridgman ;' Smithsonian Contri tions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 11. 20 • Memoire sur les Microcephales,' 1867, p. 27. 21 Quoted by Tylor, • Early History of Mankind,' 2nd edit. 1 p. 38. Chap. XI. AND NEGATION. 275 by some word; but Mr. Dyson Lacy has never seen this latter sign in Queensland, and Mr. Bulmer says that in Gripps' Land a negative is expressed by throwing the head a little backwards and putting out the tongue. At the northern extremity of the continent, near Torres Straits, the natives when uttering a negative "don't " shake the head with it, but holding up the right " hand, shake it by turning it half round and back " again two or three times/' 22 The throwing back of the head with a cluck of the tongue is said to be used as a negative by the modern Greeks and Turks, the latter people expressing yes by a movement like that made by us when we shake our heads.23 The Abys- sinians, as I am informed by Captain Speedy, express a negative by jerking the head to the right shoulder, together with a slight cluck, the mouth being closed ; an affirmation is expressed by the head being thrown backwards and the eyebrows raised for an instant. The Tagals of Luzon, in the Philippine Archipelago, as I hear from Dr. Adolf Meyer, when they say " yes," also throw the head backwards. According to the Kajah Brooke, the Dyaks of Borneo express an affirmation by raising the eyebrows, and a negation by slightly con- tracting them, together with a peculiar look from the eves. With the Arabs on the Nile, Professor and Mrs. Asa Gray concluded that nodding in affirmation was [rare, whilst shaking the head in negation was never used, and was not even understood by them. With the Esquimaux24 a nod means yes and a wink no. The New Zealanders " elevate the head and chin in place H of nodding acquiescence." 25 22 Mr. J. B. Jukes, ' Letters and Extracts,' &c. 1871, p. 248. 28 F. Lieber, « On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. p. 11. Tylor, ibid. p. 53. 24 Dr. King, Edinburgh Phil. Journal, 1845, p. 313. 25 Tylor, ' Early History "of Mankind,' 2nd edit 1870, p. 53. T 2 276 SIGNS OF AFFIRMATION Chap. XI. With the Hindoos Mr. H. Erskine concludes from inquiries made from experienced Europeans, and from native gentlemen, that the signs of affirmation and negation vary — a nod and a lateral shake being some- times used as we do ; but a negative is more commonly expressed by the head being thrown suddenly back- wards and a little to one side, with a cluck of the tongue. What the meaning may be of this cluck of the tongue, which has been observed with various people, I cannot imagine. A native gentleman stated that affirmation is frequently shown by the head being thrown to the left. I asked Mr. Scott to attend par- ticularly to this point, and, after repeated observations, he believes that a vertical nod is not commonly used by the natives in affirmation, but that the head is first thrown backwards either to the left or right, and then jerked obliquely forwards only once. This movement would perhaps have been described by a less careful observer as a lateral shake. He also states that in negation the head is usually held nearly upright, and shaken several times. Mr. Bridges informs me that the Fuegians nod their heads vertically in affirmation, and shake them laterally in denial. With the wild Indians of North America, according to Mr. Washington Matthews, nodding and shaking the head have been learnt from Europeans, and are not naturally employed. They express affirma- tion "by describing with the hand (all the fingers " except the index being flexed) a curve downwards " and outwards from the body, whilst negation is ex- " pressed by moving the open hand outwards, with the " palm facing inwards." Other observers state that the sign of affirmation with these Indians is the fore- finger being raised, and then lowered and pointed to the ground, or the hand is waved straight forward from the Chap. XI. AND NEGATION. 277 face ; and that the sign of negation is the finger or whole hand shaken from side to side.26 This latter movement probably represents in all cases the lateral shaking of the head. The Italians are said in like manner to move the lifted finger from right to left in negation, as indeed we English sometimes do. On the whole we find considerable diversity in the signs of affirmation and negation in the different races of man. With respect to negation, if we admit that the shaking of the finger or hand from side to side is symbolic of the lateral movement of the head ; and if we admit that the sudden backward movement of the head represents one of the actions often practised by young children in refusing food, then there is much uniformity throughout the world in the signs of negation, and we can see how they originated. The most marked exceptions are presented by the Arabs, Esquimaux, some Australian tribes, and Dyaks. With the latter a frown is the sign of negation, and with us frowning often accompanies a lateral shake of the head. With respect to nodding in affirmation, the excep- tions are rather more numerous, namely with some of the Hindoos, with the Turks, Abyssinians, Dyaks, Tagals, and New Zealanders. The eyebrows are some- times raised in affirmation, and as a person in bending his head forwards and downwards naturally looks up to the person whom he addresses, he will be apt to raise his eyebrows, and this sign may thus have arisen as an abbreviation. So again with the New Zealanders, the lifting up the chin and head in affirmation may perhaps represent in an abbreviated form the upward movement of the head after it has been nodded forwards and downwards. 28 Lubbock, ' The Origin of Civilization/ 1870, p. 277. Tylor, ibid, p. 38. Lieber (ibid. p. 11) remarks on the negative of the Italians. 278 SURPRISE. Chap. XII. CHAPTER XII. Surprise — Astonishment — Fear — Horror. Surprise, astonishment — Elevation of the eyebrows — Opening the mouth — - Protrusion of the lips — Gestures accompanying surprise — Admiration — Fear — Terror — Erection of the hair — Contraction of the platysma muscle — Dilatation of the pupils — Horror — Conclusion. Attention, if sudden and close, graduates into sur- prise ; and this into astonishment ; and this into stupefied amazement. The latter frame of mind is closely akin to terror. Attention is shown by the eye- brows being slightly raised ; and as this state increases into surprise, they are raised to a much greater extent, with the eyes and mouth widely open. The raising of the eyebrows is necessary in order that the eyes should be opened quickly and widely; and this movement produces transverse wrinkles across the forehead. The degree to which the eyes and mouth are opened corre- sponds with the degree of surprise felt ; but these movements must be co-ordinated ; for a widely opened mouth with eyebrows only slightly raised results in a meaningless grimace, as Dr. Duchenne has shown in one of his photographs.1 On the other hand, a person may often be seen to pretend surprise by merely raising his eyebrows. Dr. Duchenne has given a photograph of an old man with his eyebrows well elevated and arched by the galvanization of the frontal muscle ; and with his ' Mecanisnie de la Physionomie,' Album, 1862, p. 42. 3 Chap. XII. SURPRISE. 279 mouth voluntarily opened. This figure expresses sur- prise with much truth. I showed it to twenty-four persons without a word of explanation, and one alone did not at all understand what was intended. A second person answered terror, which is not far wrong; some of the others, however, added to the words surprise or astonishment, the epithets horrified, woful, painful, or disgusted. The eyes and mouth being widely open is an expres- sion universally recognised as one of surprise or aston- ishment. Thus Shakespeare says, " I saw a smith stand " with open mouth swallowing a tailor's news." ('King John/ act iv. scene ii.) And again, "They seemed " almost, with staring on one another, to tear the cases " of their eyes ; there was speech in their dumbness, " language in their very gesture ; they looked as they " had heard of a world destroyed." (' Winter's Tale,' act v. scene ii.) My informants answer with remarkable uniformity to the same effect, with respect to the various races of man ; the above movements of the features being often accompanied by certain gestures and sounds, presently to be described. Twelve observers in different parts of Australia agree on this head. Mr. Winwood Reade has observed this expression with the negroes on the Guinea coast. The chief Gaika and others answer yes to my query with respect to the Kafirs of South Africa ; d so do others emphatically with reference to the byssinians, Ceylonese, Chinese, Fuegians, various tribes of North America, and New Zealanders. With the latter, Mr. Stack states that the expression is more plainly shown by certain individuals than by others, though all endeavour as much as possible to conceal their feelings. The Dyaks of Borneo are said by the Rajah Brooke to open their eyes widely, when aston- 280 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. ished, often swinging their heads to and fro, and beating their breasts. Mr. Scott informs me that the workmen in the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta are strictly ordered not to smoke; but they often disobey this order, and when suddenly surprised in the act, they first open their eyes and mouths widely. They then often slightly shrug their shoulders, as they perceive that discovery is in- evitable, or frown and stamp on the ground from vexa- tion. Soon they recover from their surprise, and abject fear is exhibited by the relaxation of all their muscles ; their heads seem to sink between their shoulders ; their fallen eyes wander to and fro ; and they supplicate forgiveness. The well-known Australian explorer, Mr. Stuart, has given2 a striking account of stupefied amazement together with terror in a native who had never before seen a man on horseback. Mr. Stuart approached unseen and called to him from a little distance. " He " turned round and saw me. What he imagined I " was I do not know ; but a finer picture of fear and " astonishment I never saw. He stood incapable of " moving a limb, riveted to the spot, mouth open and " eyes staring. . . . He remained motionless until our " black got within a few yards of him, when suddenly " throwing down his waddies, he jumped into a mulga " bush as high as he could get." He could not speak, and answered not a word to the inquiries made by the black, but, trembling from head to foot, " waved " with his hand for us to be off." That the eyebrows are raised by an innate or instinc- tive impulse may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman invariably acts thus when astonished, .as I have been assured by the lady who has lately had The Polyglot News Letter,' Melbourne, Dec. 1858, p. 2. Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 281 charge of her. As surprise is excited by something unexpected or unknown, we naturally desire, when startled, to perceive the cause as quickly as possible; and we consequently open our eyes fully, so that the field of vision may be increased, and the eyeballs moved easily in any direction. But this hardly accounts for the eyebrows being so greatly raised as is the case, and for the wild staring of the open eyes. The explanation lies, I believe, in the impossibility of opening the eyes with great rapidity by merely raising the upper lids. To effect this the eyebrows must be lifted energetically. Any one who will try to open his eyes as quickly as possible before a mirror will find that he acts thus ; and the energetic lifting up of the eyebrows opens the eyes so widely that they stare, the white being exposed all round the iris. Moreover, the elevation of the eyebrows is an advantage in looking upwards ; for as long as they are lowered they impede our vision in this direction. Sir C. Bell gives3 a curious little proof of the part which the eyebrows play in opening the eyelids. In a stupidly drunken man all the muscles are relaxed, and the eyelids consequently droop, in the same manner as when we are falling asleep. To counteract this ten- dency the drunkard raises his eyebrows ; and this gives to him a puzzled, foolish look, as is well represented in one of Hogarth's drawings. The habit of raising the eyebrows having once been gained in order to see as quickly as possible all around us, the movement would follow from the force of association whenever astonish- ment was felt from any cause, even from a sudden sound or an idea. With adult persons, when the eyebrows are raised, the whole forehead becomes much wrinkled in trans- 3 ' The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 106. 282 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. verse lines ; but with children this occurs only to a slight degree. The wrinkles run in lines concentric with each eyebrow, and are partially confluent in the middle. They are highly characteristic of the expression of surprise or astonishment. Each eyebrow, when raised, becomes also, as Duchenne remarks,4 more arched than it was before. The cause of the mouth being opened when astonish- ment is felt, is a much more complex affair ; and several causes apparently concur in leading to this movement. It has often been supposed 5 that the sense of hearing is thus rendered more acute; but I have watched persons listening intently to a slight noise, the nature and source of which they knew perfectly, and they did not open their mouths. Therefore I at one time imagined that the open mouth might aid in dis- tinguishing the direction whence a sound proceeded, by giving another channel for its entrance into the ear through the eustachian tube. But Dr. W. Ogle 6 has been so kind as to search the best recent authorities on the functions of the eustachian tube ; and he informs me that it is almost conclusively proved that it remains closed except during the act of deglutition ; and that in persons in whom the tube remains abnormally open, the sense of hearing, as far as external sounds are con- cerned, is by no means improved ; on the contrary, it is impaired by the respiratory sounds being rendered more distinct. If a watch be placed within the mouth, but not allowed to touch the sides, the ticking is heard much less plainly than when held outside. In persons * ' Me'canisme de la Physionomie,' Album, p. 6. 5 See, for instance, Dr. Piderit (' Mimik und Physiognomik,' s. 88), who has a good discussion on the expression of surprise. • Dr. Muiie has also given me information leading to the same con- clusion, derived in part from comparative anatomy. Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 283 in whom from disease or a cold the eustachian tube is permanently or temporarily closed, the sense of hearing is injured ; but this may be accounted for by mucus accumulating within the tube, and the consequent exclusion of air. We may therefore infer that the mouth is not kept open under the sense of astonish- ment for the sake of hearing sounds more distinctly ; notwithstanding that most deaf people keep their mouths open. Every sudden emotion, including astonishment, quickens the action of the heart, and with it the respiration. Now we can breathe, as Gratiolet remarks7 and as appears to me to be the case, much more quietly through the open mouth than through the nostrils. Therefore, when we wish to listen intently to any sound, we either stop breathing, or breathe as quietly as possible, by opening our mouths, at the same time keeping our bodies motionless. One of my sons was awakened in the night by a noise under circum- stances which naturally led to great care, and after a few minutes he perceived that his mouth was widely open. He then became conscious that he had opened it for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible. This view receives support from the reversed case which occurs with dogs. A dog when panting after exercise, or on a hot day, breathes loudly ; but if his attention be suddenly aroused, he instantly pricks his ears to listen, shuts his mouth, and breathes quietly, as he is enabled to do, through his nostrils. When the attention is concentrated for a length of time with fixed earnestness on any object or subject, all the organs of the body are forgotten and neglected ;8 7 ' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 234. 8 See, on this subject, Gratiolet, ibid. p. 254. 284 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. and as the nervous energy of each individual is limited in amount, little is transmitted to any part of the system, excepting that which is at the time brought into energetic action. Therefore many of the muscles tend to become relaxed, and the jaw drops from its own weight. This will account for the dropping of the jaw and open mouth of a man stupefied with amazement, and perhaps when less strongly affected. I have noticed this appearance, as I find recorded in my notes, in very young children when they were only moderately sur- prised. There is still another and highly effective cause, leading to the mouth being opened, when we are astonished, and more especially when we are suddenly startled. We can draw a full and deep inspiration much more easily through the widely open mouth than through the nostrils. Now when we start at any sudden sound or sight, almost all the muscles of the body are involuntarily and momentarily thrown into strong action, for the sake of guarding ourselves against or jumping away from the danger, which we habitually associate with anything unexpected. But we always unconsciously prepare ourselves for any great exertion, as formerly explained, by first taking a deep and full inspiration, and we consequently open our mouths. If no exertion follows, and we still remain astonished, we cease for a time to breathe, or breathe as quietly as possible, in order that every sound may be distinctly heard. Or again, if our attention continues long and earnestly absorbed, all our muscles become relaxed, and the jaw, which was at first suddenly opened, remains dropped. Thus several causes concur towards this same movement, whenever surprise, astonishment, or amaze- ment is felt. Although when thus affected, our mouths are gene- Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 285 rally opened, yet the lips are often a little protruded. This fact reminds us of the same movement, though in a much more strongly marked degree, in the chim- panzee and orang when astonished. As a strong ex- piration naturally follows the deep inspiration which accompanies the first sense of startled surprise, and as the lips are often protruded, the various sounds which are then commonly uttered can apparently be accounted for. But sometimes a strong expiration alone is heard ; thus Laura Bridgman, when amazed, rounds and pro- trudes her lips, opens them, and breathes strongly.9 One of the commonest sounds is a deep Oh ; and this would naturally follow, as explained by Helmholtz, from the mouth being moderately opened and the lips pro- truded. On a quiet night some rockets were fired from the ' Beagle,' in a little creek at Tahiti, to amuse the natives ; and as each rocket was let off there was absolute silence, but this was invariably followed by a deep groaning Oh, resounding all round the bay. Mr. Washington Matthews says that the North American Indians express astonishment by a groan; and the negroes on the West Coast of Africa, according to Mr. W^inwood Keade, protrude their lips, and make a sound like heigh, heigh. If the mouth is not much opened, whilst the lips are considerably protruded, a blowing, hissing, or whistling noise is produced. Mr. E. Brough Smith informs me that an Australian from the interior was taken to the theatre to see an acrobat rapidly turning head over heels: "he was greatly " astonished, and protruded his lips, making a noise " with his mouth as if blowing out a match." Accord- ing to Mr. Bulmer the Australians, when surprised, utter 9 Lieber, ' On the Vocal Sounds of Laura Bridgman,' Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 7. 286 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. the exclamation horki, "and to do this the mouth is " drawn out as if going to whistle." We Europeans often whistle as a sign of surprise ; thus, in a recent novel 10 it is said, " here the man expressed his aston- " ishment and disapprobation by a prolonged whistle." A Kafir girl, as Mr. J. Mansel Weale informs me, " on " hearing of the high price of an article, raised her " eyebrows and whistled just as a European would." Mr. Wedgwood remarks that such sounds are written down as whew, and they serve as interjections for sur- prise. According to three other observers, the Australians often evince astonishment by a clucking noise. Euro- peans also sometimes express gentle surprise by a little clicking noise of nearly the same kind. We have seen that when we are startled, the mouth is suddenly opened; and if the tongue happens to be then pressed closely against the palate, its sudden withdrawal will produce a sound of this kind, which might thus come to express surprise. Turning to gestures of the body. A surprised person often raises his opened hands high above his head, or by bending his arms only to the level of bis face. The flat palms are directed towards the person who causes this feeling, and the straightened fingers are separated. This gesture is represented by Mr. Kejlander in Plate VII. fig. 1. In the ' Last Supper,' by Leonardo da Vinci, two of the Apostles have their hands half uplifted, clearly expressive of their astonishment. A trust- worthy observer told me that he had lately met his wife under most unexpected circumstances : " She started, " opened her mouth and eyes very widely, and threw " up both her arms above her head." Several years u ' Wenderholme/ vol. ii. p. 91. Chap. XII. ASTONISHMENT. 287 ago I was surprised by seeing several of my young children earnestly doing something together on the ground ; but the distance was too great for me to ask what they were about. Therefore I threw up my open hands with extended fingers above my head ; and as soon as I had done this, I became conscious of the action. I then waited, without saying a word, to see if my children had understood this gesture ; and as they came running to me they cried out, '* We saw that you were astonished " at us." I do not know whether this gesture is common to the various races of man, as I neglected to make inquiries on this head. That it is innate or natural may be inferred from the fact that Laura Bridgman, when amazed, " spreads her arms and turns her hands with " extended fingers upwards ; " u nor is it likely, con- sidering that the feeling of surprise is generally a brief one, that she should have learnt this gesture through her keen sense of touch. Huschke describes 12 a somewhat different yet allied gesture, which he says is exhibited by persons when astonished. They hold themselves erect, with the fea- tures as before described, but with the straightened arms extended backwards — the stretched fingers being separated from each other. I have never myself seen this gesture; but Huschke is probably correct; for a friend asked another man how he would express great astonishment, and he at once threw himself into this attitude. These gestures are, I believe, explicable on the prin- 11 Lieber, ' On the Vocal Sounds,' &c, ibid. p. 7. 12 Huschke, ' Mimices et Physiognomices,' 1821, p. 18. Gratiolet (De la Phys. p. 255) gives a figure of a man iu this attitude, which, however, seems to me expressive of fear combined with astonishment. Le Brun also refers (Lavater, vol. ix. p. 299) to the hands of an astonished man being opened. 288 ASTONISHMENT. Chap. XII. ciple of antithesis. We have seen that an indignant man holds his head erect, squares his shoulders, turns out his elbows, often clenches his fist, frowns, and closes his mouth ; whilst the attitude of a helpless man is in every one of these details the reverse. Now, a man in an ordinary frame of mind, doing nothing and thinking of nothing in particular, usually keeps his two arms sus- pended laxly by his sides, with his hands somewhat flexed, and the fingers near together. Therefore, to raise the arms suddenly, either the whole arms or the fore-arms, to open the palms flat, and to separate the fingers, — or, again, to straighten the arms, extending them backwards with separated fingers, — are move- ments in complete antithesis to those preserved under an indifferent frame of mind, and they are, in conse- quence, unconsciously assumed by an astonished man. There is, also, often a desire to display surprise in a conspicuous manner, and the above attitudes are well fitted for this purpose. It may be asked why should surprise, and only a few other states of the mind, be exhibited by movements in antithesis to others. But this principle will not be brought into play in the case of those emotions, such as terror, great joy, suffering, or rage, which naturally lead to certain lines of action and produce certain effects on the body, for the whole system is thus preoccupied; and these emotions are already thus expressed with the greatest plainness. There is another little gesture, expressive of astonish- ment, of which I can offer no explanation ; namely, the hand being placed over the mouth or on some part of the head. This has been observed with so many races of man, that it must have some natural origin. A wild Australian was taken into a large room full of official papers, which surprised him greatly, and he Chap. XII. FEAE. 289 cried out, cluck, cluck, cluck, putting the back of his hand towards his lips. Mrs. Barber says that the Kafirs and Fingoes express astonishment by a serious look and by placing the right hand upon the mouth, uttering the word mawo, which means ' wonderful.' The Bush- men are said 13 to put their right hands to their necks, bending their heads backwards. Mr. Win wood Keade has observed that the negroes on the West Coast of Africa, when surprised, clap their hands to their mouths, saying at the same time, " My mouth cleaves to me," i. e. to my hands ; and he has heard that this is their usual gesture on such occasions. Captain Speedy informs me that the Abyssinians place their right hand to the fore- head, with the palm outside. Lastly, Mr. Washington Matthews states that the conventional sign of astonish- ment with the wild tribes of the western parts of the United States " is made by placing the half-closed hand " over the mouth ; in doing this, the head is often bent " forwards, and words or low groans are sometimes " uttered." Catlin u makes the -same remark about the hand being pressed over the mouth by the Mandans and other Indian tribes. Admiration, — Little need be said on this head. Ad- miration apparently consists of surprise associated with some pleasure and a sense of approval. When vividly felt, the eyes are opened and the eyebrows raised ; the eyes become bright, instead of remaining blank, as under simple astonishment ; and the mouth, instead of gaping open, expands into a smile. Fear, Terror. — The word i fear ' seems to be derived 13 Huschke, ibid. p. 18. M ■ North American Indians,' 3rd edit. 1842, vol. i. p. 105. U 290 FEAR. Chap. XII. from what is sudden and dangerous ; 15 and that of terror from the trembling of the vocal organs and bod)''. I use the word ' terror ' for extreme fear ; but some writers think it ought to be confined to cases in which the imagination is more particularly concerned. Fear is often preceded by astonishment, and is so far akin to it, that both lead to the senses of sight and hearing being instantly aroused. In both cases the eyes and mouth are widely opened, and the eyebrows raised. The frightened man at first stands like a statue mo- tionless and breathless, or crouches down as if instinc- tively to escape observation. The heart beats quickly and violently, so that it pal- pitates or knocks against the ribs ; but it is very doubt- ful whether it then works more efficiently than usual, so as to send a greater supply of blood to all parts of the body ; for the skin instantly becomes pale, as during incipient faintness. This paleness of the surface, how- ever, is probably in large part, or exclusively, due to the vaso-motor centre being affected in such a manner as to cause the contraction of the small arteries of the skin. That the skin is much affected under the sense of greal fear, we see in the marvellous and inexplicable manner in which perspiration immediately exudes from it. This exudation is all the more remarkable, as the surface is then cold, and hence the term a cold sweat ; whereas the sudorific glands are properly excited into actior when the surface is heated. The hairs also on th(< skin stand erect; and the superficial muscles shiver' In connection with the disturbed action of the heart the breathing is hurried. The salivary glands act im 15 H. Wedgwood, Diet, of English Etymology, vol. ii. 1862, p. »l See, also, Gratiolet (• De la Physionomie,' p. 135) on the sources < ! &uch words as ' terror, horror, rigidus, frigidus,' &c. OOP. XII. FEAR. 291 perfectly ; the mouth becomes dry,16 and is often opened and shut. I have also noticed that under slight fear there is a strong tendency to yawn. One of the best- marked symptoms is the trembling of all the muscles o( the body ; and this is often first seen in the lips. From this cause, and from the dryness of the mouth, the voice becomes husky or indistinct, or may alto- gether fail. " Obstupui, steteruntque comae, et vox faueibus haesit." Of vague fear there is a well-known and grand de- scription in Job : — " In thoughts from the visions of the " night, when deep sleep falleth on men, fear came upon " me, and trembling, which made all my bones to shake. a Then a spirit passed before my face ; the hair of my " flesh stood up. It stood still, but I could not discern " the form thereof : an image was before my eyes, there " was silence, and I heard a voice, saying, Shall mortal " man be more just than God ? Shall a man be more " pure than his Maker ?" (Job iv. 13.) As fear increases into an agony of terror, we behold, as under all violent emotions, diversified results. The heart beats wildly, or may fail to act and faintness ensue; there is a death-like pallor; the breathing is laboured ; the wings of the nostrils are widely dilated ; " there is a gasping and convulsive motion of the lips, a " tremor on the hollow cheek, a gulping and catching of "the throat;"17 the uncovered and protruding eye- oalls are fixed on the object of terror ; or they may roll n Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' 1865, p. 54) explains in the following manner the origin of the custom " of subjecting criminals •' in India to the ordeal of the morsel of rice. The accused is made to ' take a mouthful of rice, and after a little time to throw it out. If - the morsel is quite dry, the party is believed to be guilty, — his own •' evil conscience operating to paralyse the salivating organs." 17 Sir C. Bell, Transactions of Koyal Phil. Soc. 1822, p. 308. Anatomy of Expression,' p. 88 and pp. 164-169. u 2 292 FEAE. Chap. XII. restlessly from side to side, hue illuc volvens oeuks totumque pererrat.19 The pupils are said to be enor- mously dilated. All the muscles of the body may become rigid, or may be thrown into convulsive movements. The hands are alternately clenched and opened, often with a twitching movement. The arms may be protruded, as if to avert some dreadful danger, or may be thrown wildly over the head. The Kev. Mr. Hagenauer has seen this latter action in a terrified Australian. In other cases there is a sudden and un- controllable tendency to headlong flight ; and so strong is this, that the boldest soldiers may be seized with a sudden panic. As fear rises to an extreme pitch, the dreadful scream of terror is heard. Great beads of sweat stand on the skin. All the muscles of the body are relaxed. Utter prostration soon follows, and the mental powers fail. The intestines are affected. The sphincter muscles cease to act, and no longer retain the contents of the body. Dr. J. Crichton Browne has given me so striking an account of intense fear in an insane woman, aged thirty- five, that the description though painful ought not to be omitted. When a paroxysm seizes her, she screams out, " This is hell ! " * There is a black woman ! " "I " can't get out !" — and other such exclamations. When thus screaming, her movements are those of alternate tension and tremor. For one instant she clenches her hands, holds her arms out before her in a stiff semi- flexed position ; then suddenly bends her body forwards, sways rrapidly to and fro, draws her fingers through her hair, clutches at her neck, and tries to tear off her 18 See Moreau on the rolling of the eyes, in the edit, of 1820 of Lavater, tome iv. p. 263. Also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 17. ^hap. XII. FEAR. 293 lothes. The sternocleidomastoid muscles (which serve to bend the head on the chest) stand out pro- minently, as if swollen, and the skin in front of them is much wrinkled. Her hair, which is cut short at the back of her head, and is smooth when she is calm, now stands on end ; that in front being dishevelled by the movements of her hands. The countenance expresses great mental agony. The skin is flushed over the face p,nd neck, down to the clavicles, and the veins of the forehead and neck stand out like thick cords. The lower lip drops, and is somewhat everted. The mouth is kept half open, with the lower jaw projecting. The cheeks are hollow and deeply furrowed in curved lines brunning from the wings of the nostrils to the corners of [the mouth. The nostrils themselves are raised and ex- pended. The eyes are widely opened, and beneath them Ithe skin appears swollen ; the pupils are large. The Iforehead is wrinkled transversely in many folds, and at ithe inner extremities of the eyebrows it is strongly fur- jowed in diverging lines, produced by the powerful and ipersistent contraction of the corrugators. Mr. Bell has also described 19 an agony of terror and !of despair, which he witnessed in a murderer, whilst carried to the place of execution in Turin. " On each " side of the car the officiating priests were seated ; i" and in the centre sat the criminal himself. It was r impossible to witness the condition of this unhappy " wretch without terror ; and yet, as if impelled by " some strange infatuation, it was equally impossible * not to gaze upon an object so wild, so full of horror. u He seemed about thirty-five years of age ; of large " and muscular form ; his countenance marked by 19 ' Observations on Italy,' 1825, p. 48, as quoted in ' The Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168. 294 FEAR. Chap. XII. " strong: and savage features ; half naked, pale as death, " agonized with terror, every limb strained in anguish, " his hands clenched convulsively, the sweat breaking " out on his bent and contracted brow, he kissed in- " cessantly the figure of our Saviour, painted on the " flag which was suspended before him ; but with an " agony of wildness and despair, of which nothing ever " exhibited on the stage can give the slightest con- " ception." I will add only one other case, illustrative of a man utterly prostrated by terror. An atrocious murderer of two persons was brought into a hospital, under the mistaken impression that he had poisoned himself; and Dr. W. Ogle carefully watched him the next morning, while he was being handcuffed and taken away by the police. His pallor was extreme, and his prostration so great that he was hardly able to dress himself. His skin perspired : and his eyelids and head drooped so much that it was impossible to catch even a glimpse of his eyes. His lower jaw hung down. There was no contraction of any facial muscle, and Dr. Ogle is almost certain that the hair did not stand on end, for he ob- served it narrowly, as it had been dyed for the sake of concealment. With respect to fear, as exhibited by the various races of man, my informants agree that the signs are the same as with Europeans. They are displayed in an exaggerated degree with the Hindoos and natives of Ceylon. Mr. Geach has seen Malays when terrified turn pale and shake ; and Mr. Brough Smyth states that a native Australian " being on one occasion much " frightened, showed a complexion as nearly approach- " ing to what we call paleness, as can well be con- " ceived in the case of a very black man." Mr. Dyson Lacy has seen extreme fear shown in an Australian, Chap. XII. ERECTION OF THE HAIR. 295 by a nervous twitching of the hands, feet, and lips ; and by the perspiration standing on the skin. Many savages do not repress the signs of fear so much as Europeans; and they often tremble greatly. With the Kafir, Gaika says, in his rather quaint English, the shaking " of the body is much experienced, and the eyes " are widely open." With savages, the sphincter muscles are often relaxed, just as may be observed in much frightened dogs, and as I have seen with monkeys when terrified by being caught. The erection of the hair. — Some of the signs of fear deserve a little further consideration. Poets continual ly speak of the hair standing on end ; Brutus says to the ghost of Caesar, " that mak'st my blood cold, and my " hair to stare." And Cardinal Beaufort, after the murder of Gloucester exclaims, " Comb down his hair ; " look, look, it stands upright." As I did not feel sure whether writers of fiction might not have applied to man what they had often observed in animals, I begged for information from Dr. Crichton Browne with respect to the insane. He states in answer that he has repeatedly seen their hair erected under the influence of sudden and extreme terror. For instance, it is occa- sionally necessary to inject morphia under the skin of an insane woman, who dreads the operation extremely, though it causes very little pain ; for she believes that poison is being introduced into her system, and that her bones will be softened, and her flesh turned into dust. She becomes deadly pale ; her limbs are stiffened by a sort of tetanic spasm, and her hair is partially erected on the front of the head. Dr. Browne further remarks that the bristling of the hair which is so common in the insane, is not always associated with terror. It is perhaps most frequently 296 FEAR. Chap. XII. seen in chronic maniacs, who rave incoherently and have destructive impulses ; but it is during their paroxysms of violence that the bristling is most observable. The fact of the hair becoming erect under the influence both of rage and fear agrees perfectly with what we have seen in the lower animals. Dr. Browne adduces several cases in evidence. Thus with a man now in the Asylum, before the recurrence of each maniacal paroxysm, " the hair " rises up from his forehead like the mane of a Shetland " pony." He has sent me photographs of two women, taken in the intervals between their paroxysms, and he adds with respect to one of these women, " that the " state of her hair is a sure and convenient criterion " of her mental condition." I have had one of these photographs copied, and the engraving gives, if viewed Fig. 19. From a photograph of an insane woman, to show the condition of her hair. from a little distance, a faithful representation of the original, with the exception that the hair appears rather too coarse and too much curled. The extraor- dinary condition of the hair in the insane is due, not Chap. XII. ERECTION OP THE HAIR. 297 only to its erection, but to its dryness and harshness, consequent on the subcutaneous glands failing to act. Dr. Bucknill has said 20 that a lunatic " is a lunatic to " his finger's ends ; " he might have added, and often to the extremity of each particular hair. Dr. Browne mentions as an empirical confirmation of the relation which exists in the insane between the state of their hair and minds, that the wife of a medical man, who has charge of a lady suffering from acute melancholia, with a strong fear of death, for herself, her husband and children, reported verbally to him the day before receiving my letter as follows, " I think " Mrs. will soon improve, for her hair is getting " smooth ; and I always notice that our patients get " better whenever their hair ceases to be rough and * uumanageable." Dr. Browne attributes the persistently rough condi- tion of the hair in many insane patients, in part to their minds being always somewhat disturbed, and in part to the effects of habit, — that is, to the hair being frequently and strongly erected during their many recurrent paroxysms. In patients in whom the bristling of the hair is extreme, the disease is generally per- manent and mortal ; but in others, in whom the brist- ling is moderate, as soon as they recover their health of mind the hair recovers its smoothness. In a previous chapter we have seen that with animals the hairs are erected by the contraction of minute, un- striped, and involuntary muscles, which run to each separate follicle. In addition to this action, Mr. J. Wood has clearly ascertained by experiment, as he informs me, that with man the hairs on the front of the head which slope forwards, and those on the back 20 Quoted by Dr. Maudsley, * Body and Mind,' 1870, p. 41. 298 FEAR. Chap. XU. which slope backwards, are raised in opposite directions by the contraction of the occipito-frontalis or scalp muscle. So that this muscle seems to aid in the erec- tion of the hairs on the head of man, in the same manner as the homologous jpanniculus camosus aids, or takes the greater part, in the erection of the spines on the backs of some of the lower animals. Contraction of the platysma myoides muscle. — This muscle is spread over the sides of the neck, extending downwards to a little beneath the collar-bones, and upwards to the lower part of the cheeks. A portion, called the risorius, is represented in the woodcut (M) fig. 2. The contraction of this muscle draws the corners of the mouth and the lower parts of the cheeks downwards and backwards. It produces at the same time divergent, longitudinal, prominent ridges on the sides of the neck in the young ; and, in old thin per- sons, fine transverse wrinkles. This muscle is some- times said not to be under the control of the will ; but almost every one, if told to draw the corners of his mouth backwards and downwards with great force, brings it into action. I have, however, heard of a man who can voluntarily act on it only on one side of his neck. Sir C. Bell 21 and others have stated that this muscle is strongly contracted under the influence of fear; and Duchenne insists so strongly on its importance in the expression of this emotion, that he calls it the muscle of fright22 He admits, however, that its con- traction is quite inexpressive unless associated with widely open eyes and mouth. He has given a pho- 21 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 168. 22 Mecanisine de la Phys. Humaine, Album, Legende xi. Chap. XII. CONTRACTION OF THE PLATYSMA. 299 tograph (copied and reduced in the accompanying woodcut) of the same old man as on former occa- sions, with his eyebrows strongly raised, his mouth opened, and the platysma contracted, all by means Fig. 20. Terror, from a photograph by Dr. Duchenne. of galvanism. The original photograph was shown to twenty-four persons, and they were separately asked, without any explanation being given, what expression was intended: twenty instantly answered, "intense 300 FEAR. Chap. XII. " fright " or " horror ; " three said pain, and one ex- treme discomfort. Dr. Duchenne has given another photograph of the same old man, with the platysnia contracted, the eyes and mouth opened, and the eye- brows rendered oblique, by means of galvanism. The expression thus induced is very striking (see Plate VII. fig. 2) ; the obliquity of the eyebrows adding the appear- ance of great mental distress. The original was shown to fifteen persons ; twelve answered terror or horror, and three agony or great suffering. From these cases, and from an examination of the other photographs given by Dr. Duchenne, together with his remarks thereon, I think there can be little doubt that the con- traction of the platysma does add greatly to the expres- sion of fear. Nevertheless this muscle ought hardly to be called that of fright, for its contraction is certainly not a necessary concomitant of this state of mind. A man may exhibit extreme terror in the plainest manner by death-like pallor, by drops of perspiration on his skin, and by utter prostration, with all the muscles of his body, including the platysma, completely re- laxed. Although Dr. Browne has often seen this muscle quivering and contracting in the insane, he has not been able to connect its action with any emotional con- dition in them, though he carefully attended to patients suffering from great fear. Mr. Nicol, on the other hand, has observed three cases in which this muscle appeared to be more or less permanently contracted under the influence of melancholia, associated with much dread; but in one of these cases, various other muscles about the neck and head were subject to spas- modic contractions. Dr. W. Ogle observed for me in one of the London hospitals about twenty patients, just before they were put under the influence of chloroform for operations. p/f r/i. Ju£. *fy" Chap. XII. CONTRACTION OF THE PLATYSMA. 301 They exhibited some trepidation, but no great terror. In only four of the cases was the platysma visibly contracted ; and it did not begin to contract until the patients began to cry. The muscle seemed to contract at the moment of each deep-drawn inspiration ; so that it is very doubtful whether the contraction depended at all on the emotion of fear. In a fifth case, the patient, who was not chloroformed, was much terrified ; and his platysma was more forcibly and persistently con- tracted than in the other cases. But even here there is room for doubt, for the muscle which appeared to be unusually developed, was seen by Dr. Ogle to con- tract as the man moved his head from the pillow, after the operation was over. As I felt much perplexed why, in any case, a super- ficial muscle on the neck should be especially affected by fear, I applied to my many obliging correspondents for information about the contraction of this muscle under other circumstances. It would be superfluous to give all the answers which I have received. They show that this muscle acts, often in a variable manner and degree, under many different conditions. It is violently contracted in hydrophobia, and in a somewhat less degree in lockjaw ; sometimes in a marked manner during the insensibility from chloroform. Dr. W. Ogle observed two male patients, suffering from such diffi- culty in breathing, that the trachea had to be opened, and in both the platysma was strongly contracted. One of these men overheard the conversation of the surgeons surrounding him, and when he was able to speak, declared that he had not been frightened. In some other cases of extreme difficulty of respiration, though not requiring tracheotomy, observed by Drs. Ogle and Langstaff, the platysma was not con- tracted. 302 FEAR. Chap. XII. Mr. J. Wood, who has studied with such care the muscles of the human body, as shown by his various publications, has often seen the platysma contracted in vomiting, nausea, and disgust; also in children and adults under the influence of rage, — for instance, in Irishwomen, quarrelling and brawling together with angry gesticulations. This may possibly have been due to their high and angry tones; for I know a lady, an excellent musician, who, in singing certain high notes, always contracts her platysma. So does a young man, as I have observed, in sounding certain notes on the flute. Mr. J. Wood informs me that he has found the platysma best developed in persons with thick necks and broad shoulders ; and that in families inheriting these peculiarities, its development is usually associated with much voluntary power over the homo- logous occipito-frontalis muscle, by which the scalp can be moved. None of the foregoing cases appear to throw any light on the contraction of the platysma from fear ; but it is different, I think, with the following cases. The gentleman before referred to, who can voluntarily act on this muscle only on one side of his neck, is positive that it contracts on both sides whenever he is startled. Evidence has already been given showing that this muscle sometimes contracts, perhaps for the sake of opening the mouth widely, when the breathing is ren- dered difficult by disease, and during the deep inspira- tions of crying-fits before an operation. Now, when- ever a person starts at any sudden sight or sound, he instantaneously draws a deep breath; and thus the contraction of the platysma may possibly have become associated with the sense of fear. But there is, I believe, a more efficient relation. The first sensation of fear, or the imagination of something dreadful, com- Chap. XII. DILATATION OF THE PUPILS. 303 raonly excites a shudder. I have caught myself giving a little involuntary shudder at a painful thought, and I distinctly perceived that my platysma contracted ; so it does if I simulate a shudder. I have asked others to act in this manner ; and in some the muscle con- tracted, but not in others. One of my sons, whilst getting out of bed, shuddered from the cold, and, as he happened to have his hand on his neck, he plainly felt that this muscle strongly contracted. He then voluntarily shuddered, as he had done on former occasions, but the platysma was not then affected. Mr. J. Wood has also several times observed this muscle contracting in patients, when stripped for exa- mination, and who were not frightened, but shivered slightly from the cold. Unfortunately I have not been able to ascertain whether, when the whole body shakes, as in the cold stage of an ague fit, the platysma con- tracts. But as it certainly often contracts during a shudder ; and as a shudder or shiver often accompanies the first sensation of fear, we have, I think, a clue to its action in this latter case.23 Its contraction, however, is not an invariable concomitant of fear ; for it probably never acts under the influence of extreme, prostrating terror. Dilatation of the Pupils. — Gratiolet repeatedly insists24 that the pupils are enormously dilated whenever terror is felt. I have no reason to doubt the accuracy of this statement, but have failed to obtain confirmatory 2j Ducbenne takes, in fact, this view (ibid. p. 45), as be attributes the contraction of tbe platysma to tbe shivering of fear (frisson de la peur) ; but be elsewhere compares tbe action with that which causes the hair of frightened quadrupeds to stand erect ; and this can hardly be considered as quite correct. M ' De la Pbysionomie,' pp. 51. 256, 34G. 304 HORROR. Chap. XII. evidence, excepting in the one instance before given of an insane woman suffering from great fear. When writers of fiction speak of the eyes being widely dilated, I presume that they refer to the eyelids. Munro's state- ment,25 that with parrots the iris is affected by the pas- sions, independently of the amount of light, seems to bear on this question ; but Professor Donders informs me, that he has often seen movements in the pupils of these birds which he thinks may be related to their power of accommodation to distance, in nearly the same manner as our own pupils contract when our eyes converge for near vision. Gratiolet remarks that the dilated pupils appear as if they were gazing into profound darkness. No doubt the fears of man have often been excited in the dark ; but hardly so often or so exclusively, as to account for a fixed and associated habit having thus arisen. It seems more probable, assuming that Gratiolet's state- ment is correct, that the brain is directly affected by the powerful emotion of fear and reacts on the pupils ; but Professor Donders informs me that this is an ex- tremely complicated subject. I may add, as possibly throwing light on the subject, that Dr. Fyffe, of Netley Hospital, has observed in two patients that the pupils were distinctly dilated during the eold stage of an ague fit. Professor Donders has also often seen dilatation of the pupils in incipient faintness. Horror. — The state of mind expressed by this term implies terror, and is in some cases almost synony- mous with it. Many a man must have felt, before the blessed discovery of chloroform, great horror at the thought of an impending surgical operation. He who dreads, as well as hates a man, will feel, as Milton As quoted in "White's ' Gradation in Man,' p. 57. Chap. XII. HORROR. 305 ! uses the word, a horror of him. We feel horror if we Kany one, for instance a child, exposed to some instant crushing danger. Almost every one would experi- 3 the same feeling in the highest degree in witness- a man being tortured or going to be tortured. In these cases there is no danger to ourselves ; but from the power of the imagination and of sympathy we put ourselves in the position of the sufferer, and feel some- thing akin to fear. Sir C. Bell remarks,26 that " horror is full of energy ; '•' the body is in the utmost tension, not unnerved by u fear." It is, therefore, probable that horror would generally be accompanied by the strong contraction of the brows ; but as fear is one of the elements, the eyes and mouth would be opened, and the eyebrows would be raised, as far as the antagonistic action of the corrugators permitted this movement. Duchenne has | given a photograph 27 (fig. 21) of the same old man as ! before, with his eyes somewhat staring, the eyebrows ', partially raised, and at the same time strongly con- i tracted, the mouth opened, and the platysma in action, ; all effected by the means of galvanism. He considers ! that the expression thus produced shows extreme terror with horrible pain or torture. A tortured man, as long as his sufferings allowed him to feel any dread for the future, would probably exhibit horror in an extreme degree. I have shown the original of this photograph 1 to twenty-three persons of both sexes and various ages ; and thirteen immediately answered horror, great pain, torture, or agony ; three answered extreme fright ; so that sixteen answered nearly in accordance with Du- chenne's belief. Six, however, said anger, guided no 26 ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 169. 27 ' Mecanisme de la Physionomie,' Album, pi. 65, pp. 44, 45. X 306 HORROR. Chap. XII. doubt, by the strongly contracted brows, and overlooking the peculiarly opened mouth. One said disgust. On the whole, the evidence indicates that we have here a Fig. 21. Horror and Agony, copied from a photograph by Dr. Ducheune. fairly good representation of horror and agony. The photograph before referred to (PI. VII. fig. 2) likewise exhibits horror; but in this the oblique eyebrows in- dicate great mental distress in place of energy. £ap. XII. CONCLUSION. 307 Horror is generally accompanied by various gestures, which differ in different individuals. Judging from pictures, the whole body is often turned away or shrinks ; or the arms are violently protruded as if to push away some dreadful object. The most frequent gesture, as far as can be inferred from the acting of persons who endeavour to express a vividly-imagined scene of horror, is the raising of both shoulders, with the bent arms pressed closely against the sides or chest. These movements are nearly the same with those commonly made when we feel very cold ; and they are generally accompanied by a shudder, as well as by a deep expira- tion or inspiration, according as the chest happens at the time to be expanded or contracted. The sounds thus made are expressed by words like uh or ugh.™ It is not, however, obvious why, when we feel cold or express a sense of horror, we press our bent arms against our bodies, raise our shoulders, and shudder. Conclusion. — I have now endeavoured to describe the diversified expressions of fear, in its gradations from mere attention to a start of surprise, into extreme terror and horror. Some of the signs may be accounted for through the principles of habit, association, and inheritance, — such as the wide opening of the mouth and eyes, with upraised eyebrows, so as to see as quickly as possible all around us, and to hear dis- tinctly whatever sound may reach our ears. For we have thus habitually prepared ourselves to discover and encounter any danger. Some of the other signs of fear may likewise be accounted for, at least in 28 See remarks to this effect by Mr. Wedgwood, in the Introduction to his 'Dictionary of English Etymology,' 2nd edit. 1872, p. xxxvii. He shows by intermediate forms that the sounds here referred to have probably given rise to many words, such as ugly, huge, &c. x 2 308 FEAR AND HORROR. Chap. XIL part, through these same principles. Men, during numberless generations, have endeavoured to escape from their enemies or danger by headlong flight, or by violently struggling with them; and such great exertions will have caused the heart to beat rapidly, the breathing to be hurried, the chest to heave, and ths nostrils to be dilated. As these exertions have often been prolonged to the last extremity, the final result will have been utter prostration, pallor, perspiration, trembling of all the muscles, or their complete relaxa- tion. And now, whenever the emotion of fear is strongly felt, though it may not lead to any exertion, the same results tend to reappear, through the force of inheritance and association. Nevertheless, it is probable that many or most of the above symptoms of terror, such as the beating of the heart, the trembling of the muscles, cold perspiration, &c, are in large part directly due to the disturbed or interrupted transmission of nerve-force from the cerebro-spinal system to various parts of the body, owing to the mind being so powerfully affected. We may confidently look to this cause, independently of habit and association, in such cases as the modified secretions of the intestinal canal, and the failure of certain glands to act. With respect to the involuntary bristling of the hair, we have good reason to believe that in the case of animals this action, however it may have originated, serves, together with certain voluntary movements, to make them appear terrible to their enemies ; and as the same involuntary and voluntary actions are performed by animals nearly related to man, we are led to believe that man has retained through inheritance a relic of them, now become useless. It is certainly a remarkable fact, that the minute unstriped muscles, by which the hairs thinly scattered over man's almost naked body Chap. XII. CONCLUSION. 309 are erected, should have been preserved to the present day; and that they should still contract under the same emotions, namely, terror and rage, which cause the hairs to stand on end in the lower members of the Order to which man belongs. 310 BLUSHING. " Chap. XIII. CHAPTEK XIII. Self- attention — Siiame — Shyness — Modesty : Blushing. Nature of a blush. — Inheritance — The parts of the body most affected — Blushing in the various races of man — Accompanying gestures — Confusion of mind — Causes of blushing — Self- attention, the fundamental element — Shyness — Shame, from broken moral laws and conventional rules — Modesty — Theory of blushing — Recapitulation. Blushing is the most peculiar and the most human of all expressions. Monkeys redden from passion, but it would require an overwhelming amount of evidence to make us believe that any animal could blush. The red- dening of the face from a blush is due to the relaxation of the muscular coats of the small arteries, by which the capillaries become filled with blood ; and this de- pends on the proper vaso-motor centre being affected. No doubt if there be at the same time much mental agi- tation, the general circulation will be affected ; but it is not due to the action of the heart that the network of minute vessels covering the face becomes under a sense of shame gorged with blood. We can cause laughing by tickling the skin, weeping or frowning by a blow, trembling from the fear of pain, and so forth; but we cannot cause a blush, as Dr. Burgess remarks,1 by any physical means, — that is by any action on the body. It is the mind which must be affected. Blushing is not only involuntary; but the 1 « The Physiology or Mechanism of Blushing,' 1839, p. 156. I shall have occasion often to quote this work in the present chapter. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 311 wish to restrain it, by leading to self-attention actually increases the tendency. The young blush much more freely than the old, but not during infancy,2 which is remarkable, as we know that infants at a very early age redden from passion. I have received authentic accounts of two little girls blushing at the ages of between two and three years; and of another sensitive child, a year older, blushing, when reproved for a fault. Many children, at a somewhat more advanced age blush in a strongly marked manner. It appears that the mental powers of infants are not as yet sufficiently developed to allow of their blushing. Hence, also, it is that idiots rarely blush. Dr. Crichton Browne observed for me those under his care, but never saw a genuine blush, though he has seen their faces flush, apparently from joy, when food was placed before them, and from anger. Nevertheless some, if not utterly degraded, are capable of blushing. A microcephalous idiot, for in- stance, thirteen years old, whose eyes brightened a little when he was pleased or amused, has been de- scribed by Dr. Behn,3 as blushing and turning to one side, when undressed for medical examination. Women blush much more than men. It is rare to see an old man, but not nearly so rare to see an old woman blushing. The blind do not escape. Laura Bridgman, born in this condition, as well as completely deaf, blushes.4 The Kev. E. H. Blair, Principal of the Worcester College, informs me that three children 2 Dr. Burgess, ibid. p. 56. At p. 33 he also remarks on women blushing more freely than men, as stated below. 3 Quoted by Vogt, ' Me'moire sur les Microeephales,' 1867, p. 20. Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 56) doubts whether idiots ever blush. 4 Lieber ' On the Vocal Sounds,' &c. ; Smithsonian Contributions, 1851, vol. ii. p. 6. 312 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. born blind, out of seven or eight then in the Asylum, are great blushers. The blind are not at first conscious that they are observed, and it is a most important part of their education, as Mr. Blair informs me, to impress this knowledge on their minds ; and the im- pression thus gained would greatly strengthen the ten- dency to blush, by increasing the habit of self-attention. The tendency to blush is inherited. Dr. Burgess gives the case5 of a family consisting of a father, mother, and ten children, all of whom, without excep- tion, were prone to blush to a most painful degree. The children were grown up ; " and some of them were " sent to travel in order to wear away this diseased " sensibility, but nothing was of the slightest avail." Even peculiarities in blushing seem to be inherited. Sir James Paget, whilst examining the spine of a girl, was struck at her singular manner of blushing; a big splash of red appeared first on one cheek, and then other splashes, variously scattered over the face and neck. He subsequently asked the mother whether her daughter always blushed in this peculiar manner ; and was answered, " Yes, she takes after me." Sir J. Paget then perceived that by asking this question he had caused the mother to blush ; and she exhibited the same peculiarity as her daughter. In most cases the face, ears and neck are the sole parts which redden ; but many persons, whilst blushing intensely, feel that their whole bodies grow hot and tingle ; and this shows that the entire surface must be in some manner affected. Blushes are said sometimes to commence on the forehead, but more commonly on the cheeks, afterwards spreading to the ears and neck.6 In two Albinos examined by Dr. Burgess, the blushes 5 Ibid. p. 182. 6 Moreau, in edit, of 1820 of Lavater, vol. iv. p. 303. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 313 commenced by a small circumscribed spot on the cheeks, over the parotidean plexus of nerves, and then increased into a circle ; between this blushing circle and the blush on the neck there was an evident line of demar- cation ; although both arose simultaneously. The retina, which is naturally red in the Albino, invariably increased at the same time in redness.7 Every one must have noticed how easily after one blush fresh blushes chase each other over the face. Blushing is preceded by a peculiar sensation in the skin. According to Dr. Burgess the reddening of the skin is generally succeeded by a slight pallor, which shows that the capil- lary vessels contract after dilating. In some rare cases paleness instead of redness is caused under conditions which would naturally induce a blush. For instance, a young lady told me that in a large and crowded party she caught her hair so firmly on the button of a passing servant, that it took some time before she could be extricated ; from her sensations she imagined that she had blushed crimson ; but was assured by a friend that she had turned extremely pale. I was desirous to learn how far down the body blushes extend ; and Sir J. Paget, who necessarily has frequent opportunities for observation, has kindly at- tended to this point for me during two or three years. He finds that with women who blush intensely on the face, ears, and nape of neck, the blush does not com- monly extend any lower down the body. It is rare to see it as low down as the collar-bones and shoulder-blades ; and he has never himself seen a single instance in which it extended below the upper part of the chest. He has also noticed that blushes sometimes die away down- wards, not gradually and insensibly, but by irregular 7 Burgess, ibid. p. 38, on paleness after blushing, p. 177. 314 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. ruddy blotches. Dr. Langstaff has likewise observed for me several women whose bodies did not in the least redden while their faces were crimsoned with blushes. With the insane, some of whom appear to be particularly liable to blushing, Dr. J. Crichton Browne has several times seen the blush extend as far down as the collar- bones, and in two instances to the breasts. He gives me the case of a married woman, aged twenty-seven, who suffered from epilepsy. On the morning after her arrival in the Asylum, Dr. Browne, together with his assistants, visited her whilst she was in bed. The mo- ment that he approached, she blushed deeply over her cheeks and temples ; and the blush spread quickly to her ears. She was much agitated and tremulous. He unfastened the collar of her chemise in order to ex- amine the state of her lungs; and then a brilliant blush rushed over her chest, in an arched line over the upper third of each breast, and extended downwards between the breasts nearly to the ensiform cartilage of the sternum. This case is interesting, as the blush did not thus extend downwards until it became intense by her attention being drawn to this part of her person. As the examination proceeded she became composed, and the blush disappeared ; but on several subsequent occasions the same phenomena were observed. The foregoing facts show that, as a general rule, with English women, blushing does not extend beneath the neck and upper part of the chest. Nevertheless Sir J. Paget informs me that he has lately heard of a case, on which he can fully rely, in which a little girl, shocked by what she imagined to be an act of indelicacy, blushed all over her abdomen and the upper parts of her legs. Moreau also 8 relates, on the authority of a celebrated See Lavater, edit, of 1820, vol. iv. p. 303. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 315 painter, that the chest, shoulders, arms, and whole body of a girl, who unwillingly consented to serve as a model, reddened when she was first divested of her clothes. It is a rather curious question why, in most cases the face, ears, and neck alone redden, inasmuch as the whole surface of the body often tingles and grows hot. This seems to depend, chiefly, on the face and adjoining parts of the skin having been habitually exposed to the air, light, and alternations of temperature, by which the small arteries not only have acquired the habit of readily dilating and contracting, but appear to have become unusually developed in comparison with other parts of the surface.9 It is probably owing to this same cause, as M. Moreau and Dr. Burgess have remarked, that the face is so liable to redden under various circumstances, such as a fever-fit, ordinary heat, violent exertion, anger, a slight blow, &c. ; and on the other hand that it is liable to grow pale from cold and fear, and to be discoloured during pregnancy. The face is also particularly liable to be affected by cuta- neous complaints, by small-pox, erysipelas, &c. This view is likewise supported by the fact that the men of certain races, who habitually go nearly naked, often blush over their arms and chests and even down to their waists. A lady, who is a great blusher, informs Dr. Crichton Browne, that when she feels ashamed or is agitated, she blushes over her face, neck, wrists, and hands, — that is, over all the exposed portions of her skin. Nevertheless it may be doubted whether the habitual exposure of the skin of the face and neck, and its consequent power of reaction under stimulants of all kinds, is by itself sufficient to account 9 Burgess, ibid. pp. 114, 122. Moreau in Lavater, ibid. vol. iv. p. 293. 316 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. for the much greater tendency in English women of these parts than of others to blush ; for the hands are well supplied with nerves and small vessels, and have been as much exposed to the air as the face or neck, and yet the hands rarely blush. We shall presently see that the attention of the mind having been directed much more frequently and earnestly to the face than to any other part of the body, probably affords a suffi- cient explanation. Blushing in the various races of man. — The small vessels of the face become filled with blood, from the emotion of shame, in almost all the races of man, though in the very dark races no distinct change of colour can be perceived. Blushing is evident in all the Aryan nations of Europe, and to a certain extent with those of India. But Mr. Erskine has never noticed that the necks of the Hindoos are decidedly affected. With the Lepchas of Sikhim, Mr. Scott has often observed a faint blush on the cheeks, base of the ears, and sides of the neck, accompanied by sunken eyes and lowered head. This has occurred when he has detected them in a falsehood, or has accused them of ingratitude. The pale, sallow complexions of these men render a blush much more conspicuous than in most of the other natives of India. With the latter, shame, or it may be in pa*rt fear, is expressed, according to Mr. Scott, much more plainly by the head being averted or bent down, with the eyes wavering or turned askant, than by any change of colour in the skin. The Semitic races blush freely, as might have been expected, from their general similitude to the Aryans. Thus with the Jews, it is said in the Book of Jeremiah (chap. vi. 15), "Nay, they were not at all ashamed, " neither could they blush." Mrs. Asa Gray saw an [AP. XIII. BLUSHING. 317 Arab managing his boat clumsily on the Nile, and when laughed at by his companions, " he blushed " quite to the back of his neck." Lady Duff Gordon remarks that a young Arab blushed on coming into her presence.10 Mr. Swinhoe has seen the Chinese blushing, but he thinks it is rare; yet they have the expression "to I redden with shame." Mr. Geach informs me that the Chinese settled in Malacca and the native Malays of tie interior both blush. Some of these people go nearly aked, and he particularly attended to the downward xtension of the blush. Omitting the cases in which the face alone was seen to blush, Mr. Geach observed that the face, arms, and breast of a Chinaman, aged 24 years, reddened from shame ; and with another Chinese, when asked why he had not done his work in better style, the whole body was similarly affected. In two Malays n he saw the face, neck, breast, and arms blushing; and in a third Malay (a Bugis) the blush extended down to the waist. The Polynesians blush freely. The Rev. Mr. Stack has seen hundreds of instances with the New Zea- landers. The following case is worth giving, as it relates to an old man who was unusually dark-coloured and partly tattooed. After having let his land to an Englishman for a small yearly rental, a strong passion seized him to buy a gig, which had lately become the fashion with the Maoris. He consequently wished to draw all the rent for four years from his tenant, and consulted Mr. Stack whether he could do so. The man 10 ' Letters from Egypt,' 1865, p. 66. Lady Gordon is mistaken when she says Malays and Mulattoes never blush. 11 Capt. Osborn (* Quedah,' p. 199), in speaking of a Malay, whom he reproached for cruelty, says he was glad to see that the man blushed. 318 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. was old, clumsy, poor, and ragged, and the idea of his driving himself about in his carriage for display amused Mr. Stack so much that he could not help bursting out into a laugh ; and then a the old man blushed up to the " roots of his hair." Forster says that " you may easily " distinguish a spreading blush " on the cheeks of the fairest women in Tahiti.12 The natives also of several of the other archipelagoes in the Pacific have been seen to blush. Mr. Washington Matthews has often seen a blush on the faces of the young squaws belonging to various wild Indian tribes of North America. At the opposite extremity of the continent in Tierra del Fuego, the natives, according to Mr. Bridges, "blush much, but " chiefly in regard to women ; but they certainly blush " also at their own personal appearance." This latter statement agrees with what I remember of the Fuegian, Jemmy Button, who blushed when he was quizzed about the care which he took in polishing his shoes, and in otherwise adorning himself. With respect to the Ay- mara Indians on the lofty plateaus of Bolivia, Mr. Forbes says,13 that from the colour of their skins it is impossible that their blushes should be as clearly 12 J. K. Forster, ' Observations during a Voyage round the World,' 4to, 1778, p. 229. Waitz gives (' Introduction to Anthropology,' Eng. translat. 1863, vol. i. p. 135) references for other islands in the Pacific. See, also, Dampier ' On the Blushing of the Tunquinese ' (vol. ii. p. 40) ; but I have not consulted this work. Waitz quotes Bergmauu, that the Kalmucks do not blush, but this may be doubted after what we have seen with respect to the Chinese. He also quotes Roth, who denies that the Abyssinians are capable of blushing. Unfortunately, Capt. Speedy, who lived so long with the Abyssinians, has not answered my inquiry on this head. Lastly, I must add that the Rajah Brooke has never observed the least sign of a blush with the Dyaks of Borneo ; on the contrary, under circumstances which would excite a blush in us, they assert u that they feel the blood drawn from their faces." 13 Transact, of the Ethnological Soc. 1870, vol. ii. p. 16. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 319 visible as in the white races; still under such circum- stances as would raise a blush in us, " there can always " be seen the same expression of modesty or confusion ; " and even in the dark, a rise of temperature of the " skin of the face can be felt, exactly as occurs in the "European." With the Indians who inhabit the hot, equable, and damp parts of South America, the skin apparently does not answer to mental excitement so readily as with the natives of the northern and southern parts of the continent, who have long been exposed to great vicissitudes of climate; for Humboldt quotes without a protest the sneer of the Spaniard, * How can "those be trusted, who know not how to blush?"14 Von Spix and Martius, in speaking of the aborigines of Brazil, assert that they cannot properly be said to blush ; " it was only after long intercourse with the u whites, and after receiving some education, that we " perceived in the Indians a change of colour express- " ive of the emotions of their minds." 15 It is, however, incredible that the power of blushing could have thus originated ; but the habit of self-attention, consequent on their education and new course of life, would have much increased any innate tendency to blush. Several trustworthy observers have assured me that they have seen on the faces of negroes an appearance resembling a blush, under circumstances which would have excited one in us, though their skins were of an ebony-black tint. Some describe it as blushing brown, but most say that the blackness becomes more intense. An increased supply of blood in the skin seems in some manner to increase its blackness; thus certain exan- thematous diseases cause the affected places in the 14 Humboldt, ' Personal Narrative,' Eng. translat. vol. iii. p. 229. 15 Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, vol. i. p. 271. 320 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. negro to appear blacker, instead of, as with us, redder.16 The skin, perhaps, from being rendered more tense by the filling of the capillaries, would reflect a somewhat different tint to what it did before. That the capil- laries of the face in the negro become filled with blood, under the emotion of shame, we may feel confident; because a perfectly characterized albino negress, de- scribed by Buffon,17 showed a faint tinge of crimson on her cheeks when she exhibited herself naked. Cica- trices of the skin remain for a long time white in the negro, and Dr. Burgess, who had frequent opportu- nities of observing a scar of this kind on the face of a negress, distinctly saw that it " invariably became red " whenever she was abruptly spoken to, or charged with " any trivial offence." 18 The blush could be seen pro- ceeding from the circumference of the scar towards the middle, but it did not reach the centre. Mulattoes are often great blushers, blush succeeding blush over their faces. From these facts there can be no doubt that negroes blush, although no redness is visible on the skin. I am assured by Gaika and by Mrs, Barber that the Kafirs of South Africa never blush ; but this may only mean that no change of colour is distinguishable. Gaika adds that under the circumstances which would make a European blush, his countrymen "look ashamed to " keep their heads up." 16 See, on this head, Burgess, ibid. p. 32, Also Waitz, ' Introduc- tion to Anthropology,' Eng. edit. vol. i. p. 135. Moreau gives a detailed account (' Lavater,' 1820, torn. iv. p. 302) of the blushing of a Mada- gascar negress-slave when forced by her brutal master to exhibit her naked bosom. " Quoted by Prichard, Phys. Hist, of Mankind, 4th edit. 1851, vol. i. p. 225. 18 Burgess, ibid. p. 31. On mulattoes blushing, see p. 33. I have received similar accounts with respect to mulattoes. BfcAP. XIII. BLUSHING. 321 It is asserted by four of my informants that the Australians, who are almost as black as negroes, never blush. A fifth answers doubtfully, remarking that only- a very strong blush could be seen, on account of the dirty state of their skins. Three observers state that they do blush ; 19 Mr. S. Wilson adding that this is noticeable only under a strong emotion, and when the skin is not too dark from long exposure and want of cleanliness. Mr. Lang answers, " I have "noticed that shame almost always excites a blush, * which frequently extends as low as the neck." Shame is also shown, as he adds, " by the eyes being turned " from side to side." As Mr. Lang was a teacher in a native school, it is probable that he chiefly observed children; and we know that they blush more than adults. Mr. G. Taplin has seen half-castes blushing, and he says that the aborigines have a word expressive of shame. Mr. Hagenauer, who is one of those who has never observed the Australians to blush, says that he has " seen them looking down to the ground on " account of shame ;" and the missionary, Mr. Bulmer, remarks that though " I have not been able to detect " anything like shame in the adult aborigines, 1 have " noticed that the eyes of the children, when ashamed, "present a restless* watery appearance, as if they did " not know where to look." The facts now given are sufficient to show that blush- ing, whether or not there is any change of colour, is common to most, probably to all, of the races of man. Movements and gestures which accompany Blushing. — Under a keen sense of shame there is a strong desire 19 Barrington also says that the Australians of New South Wales blush, as quoted by Waitz, ibid. p. 135. Y 322 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. for concealment.20 We turn away the whole body, more especially the face, which we endeavour in some manner to hide. An ashamed person can hardly endure to meet the gaze of those present, so that he almost invariably casts down his eyes or looks askant. As there generally exists at the same time a strong wish to i avoid the appearance of shame, a vain attempt is made to look direct at the person who causes this feeling; and the antagonism between these opposite tendencies leads to various restless movements in the eyes. I have noticed two ladies who, whilst blushing, to which they are very liable, have thus acquired, as it ap- pears, the oddest trick of incessantly blinking their- eyelids with extraordinary rapidity. An intense blush i is sometimes accompanied by a slight effusion of tears;21 and this, I presume, is due to the lacrymal glands partaking of the increased supply of blood, which we know rushes into the capillaries of the adjoin- ing parts, including the retina. Many writers, ancient and modern, have noticed the foregoing movements; and it has already been shown i that the aborigines in various parts of the world often exhibit their shame by looking downwards or askant, or by restless movements of their eyes. Ezra cries out! (ch. ix. 6), " 0, my God I I am ashamed, and blush to1 " lift up my head to thee, my God." In Isaiah (ch. 1. 20 Mr. Wedgwood says (Diet, of English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 155) that the word shame " may well originate in the idea of shade " or concealment, and may be illustrated by the Low German scheme, " shade or shadow." Gratiolet (De la Phys. pp. 357-362) has a good discussion on the gestures accompanying shame ; but some of his re- marks seem to me rather fanciful. See, also, Burgess (ibid. pp. 69, 134) on the same subject. 21 Burgess, ibid. pp. 181, 182. Boerhaave also noticed (as quoted by Gratiolet, ibid. p. 361) the tendency to the secretion of tears during intense blushing. Mr. Biilmer, as we have seen, speaks of the " watery eyes " of the children of the Australian aborigines when ashamed. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 323 6) we meet with the words, " I hid not iny face from * shame." Seneca remarks (Epist. xi. 5) "that the li Koman players hang down their heads, fix their eyes on the ground and keep them lowered, but are unable to blush in acting shame." According to Macrobius, who lived in the fifth century (' Saturnalia,' b. yii. c. 11), ;f Natural philosophers assert that nature being moved c< by shame spreads the blood before herself as a veil, as we see any one blushing often puts his hands before 4 his face." Shakspeare makes Marcus (' Titus An- clronicus,' act ii. sc. 5) say to his niece, "Ah! now thou turn'st away thy face for shame." A lady .ii Informs me that she found in the Lock Hospital a I girl whom she had formerly known, and who had I become a wretched castaway, and the poor creature, 1 when approached, hid her face under the bed-clothes, 1, and could not be persuaded to uncover it. We often see little children, when shy or ashamed, turn away, and still standing up, bury their faces in their mother's I gown ; or they throw themselves face downwards on her lap. Confusion of mind. — Most persons, whilst blushing ('intensely, have their mental powers confused. This is recognized in such common expressions as "she "was covered with confusion." Persons in this con- dition lose their presence of mind, and utter singularly inappropriate remarks. They are often much distressed, stammer, and make awkward movements or strange grimaces. In certain cases involuntary twitchings of some of the facial muscles may be observed. I have been informed by a young lady, who blushes excessively, that at such times she does not even know what she is saying. When it was suggested to her that this might be due to her distress from the consciousness that her y 2 324 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. blushing was noticed, she answered that this could not be the case, " as she had sometimes felt quite "as stupid when blushing at a thought in her own " room." I will give an instance of the extreme disturbance of mind to which some sensitive men are liable. A gentleman, on whom I can rely, assured me that he had been an eye-witness of the following scene: — A small dinner-party was given in honour of an extremely shy man, who, when he rose to return thanks, rehearsed the speech, which he had evidently learnt by heart, in absolute silence, and did not utter a single word ; but he acted as if he were speaking with much emphasis. His friends, perceiving how the case stood, loudly applauded the imaginary bursts of eloquence, whenever his ges- tures indicated a pause, and the man never discovered that he had remained the whole time completely silent. On the contrary, he afterwards remarked to my friend, with much satisfaction, that he though^ he had succeeded uncommonly welL When a person is much ashamed or very shy, ana blushes intensely, his heart beats rapidly and his breathing is disturbed. This can hardly fail to affect the circulation of the blood within the brain, and per* haps the mental powers. It seems however doubtful, judging from; the still more powerful influence of ange*| and fear on the circulation, whether we can thus satis^ factorily account for the confused state of mind in persons whilst blushing intensely. The true explanation apparently lies in the intimatd sympathy which exists between the capillary circula- tion of the surface of the head and face, and that of the brain. On applying to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for information, he has given me various facts bearing on this subject. When the sympathetic nerve is divid Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 325 [on one side of the head, the capillaries on this side ire relaxed and become filled with blood, causing Ithe skin to redden and to grow hot, and at the same time the temperature within the cranium on the same side rises. Inflammation of the membranes of the brain leads to the engorgement of the face, ears, and eyes with blood. The first stage of an epileptic fit appears to be the contraction of the vessels of the brain, and the first outward manifestation is an extreme pallor of countenance. Erysipelas of the head commonly in- duces delirium. Even the relief given to a severe headache by burning the skin with strong lotion, depends, I presume, on the same principle. Dr. Browne has often administered to his patients the vapour of the nitrite of amyl,22 which has the sin- gular property of causing vivid redness of the face in from thirty to sixty seconds. This flushing re- sembles blushing in almost every detail : it begins at several distinct points on the face, and spreads till it involves the whole surface of the head, neck, and front of the chest ; but has been observed to extend only in one case to the abdomen. The arteries in the retina become enlarged; the eyes glisten, and in one instance there was a slight effusion of tears. The patients are at first pleasantly stimulated, but, as the flushing increases, they become confused and bewildered. One woman to whom the vapour had often been administered asserted that, as soon as she grew hot, she grew muddled. With persons just commencing to blush it appears, judging from their bright eyes and lively behaviour, that their mental powers are somewhat stimulated. It is only when the blushing is excessive that the mind grows 22 See also Dr. J. Crichton Browne's Memoir on this subject in the West Biding Lunatic Asylum Medical Keport/ 1871, pp. 95-98. 326 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. confused. Therefore it would seem that the capillaries of the face are affected, both during the inhalation of the nitrite of amyl and during blushing, before that part of the brain is affected on which the mental powers depend. Conversely when the brain is primarily affected, the circulation of the skin is so in a secondary manner. Dr. Browne has frequently observed, as he informs me, scattered red blotches and mottlings on the chests of epileptic patients. In these cases, when the skin on the thorax or abdomen is gently rubbed with a pencil or other object, or, in strongly-marked cases, is merely touched by the finger, the surface becomes suffused in less than half a minute with bright red marks, which spread to some distance on each side of the touched point, and persist for several minutes. These are the cerebral maculse of Trousseau; and they indicate, as Dr. Browne remarks, a highly modified condition of the cutaneous vascular system. If, then, there exists, as cannot be doubted, an intimate sympathy between the capillary circulation in that part of the brain on which our mental powers depend, and in the skin of the face, it is not surprising that the moral causes which induce intense blushing should likewise induce, independently of their own disturbing influence, much confusion of mind. The Nature of tlie Mental States which induce Blush* ing. — These consist of shyness, shame, and modesty; the essential element in all being self-attention. Many reasons can be assigned for believing that originally self-attention directed to personal appearance, in relation to the opinion of others, was the exciting cause ; the same effect being subsequently produced, through the force of association, by self-attention in relation to moral conduct. It is not the simple act of reflecting Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 327 on our own appearance, but the thinking what others think of us, which excites a blush. In absolute solitude the most sensitive person would be quite indifferent about his appearance. We feel blame or disapprobation more acutely than approbation; and consequently depreciatory remarks or ridicule, whether of our appearance or conduct, causes us to blush much more readily than does praise* But undoubtedly praise and admiration are highly efficient: a pretty girl blushes when a man gazes intently at her, though she may know perfectly well that he is not depreciating her. Many children, as well as old and sensitive per- sons blush, when they are much praised. Hereafter the question will be discussed, how it has arisen that the consciousness that others are attending to our personal appearance should have led to the capillaries, espe- cially those of the face, instantly becoming filled with blood. My reasons for believing that attention directed to personal appearance, and not to moral conduct, has been the fundamental element in the acquirement of the habit of blushing, will now be given. They are separately light, but combined possess, as it appears to me, con- siderable weight. It is notorious that nothing makes a shy person blush so much as any remark, however slight, on his personal appearance. One cannot notice even the dress of a woman much given to blushing, without causing her face to crimson. It is sufficient to stare hard at some persons to make them, as Cole- ridge remarks, blush, — " account for that he who "can."23 With the two albinos observed by Dr. Burgess,24 23 In a discussion on so-called animal magnetism in • Table Talk/ vol. i. 24 Ibid. p. 40. 328 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. " the slightest attempt to examine their peculiarities " invariably " caused them to blush deeply. Women are much more sensitive about their personal appearance than men are, especially elderly women in comparison with elderly men, and they blush much more freely. The young of both sexes are much more sensitive on this same head than the old, and they also blush much more freely than the old. Children at a very early age do not blush ; nor do they show those other signs of self-consciousness which generally accompany blush- ing ; and it is one of their chief charms that they think nothing about what others think of them. At this early age they will stare at a stranger with a fixed gaze and unblinking eyes, as on an inanimate object, in a manner which we elders cannot imitate. It is plain to every one that young men and women are highly sensitive to the opinion of each other with reference to their personal appearance; and they blush incomparably more in the presence of the opposite sex than in that of their own.25 A young man, not very liable to blush, will blush intensely at any slight ridicule of his appearance from a girl whose judgment on any important subject he would disregard. No happy pair of young lovers, valuing each other's admiration and love more than anything else in the world, probably ever courted each other without many a blush. Even the barbarians of Tierra del Fuego, according to Mr. Bridges, blush " chiefly in regard to " women, but certainly also at their own personal u appearance." Of all parts of the body, the face is most considered 25 Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will/ 1865, p. 65) remarks on " the shyness of manners which is induced between the sexes .... <4 from the influence of mutual regard, by the apprehension on either * side of not standing well with the other." Oiai>. XIII. BLUSHING. 329 and regarded, as is natural from its being the chief seat of expression and the source of the voice. It is also the chief seat of beauty and of ugliness, and throughout the world is the most ornamented.26 The face, there- fore, will have been subjected during many generations to much closer and more earnest self-attention than any other part of the body; and in accordance with the principle here advanced we can understand why it should be the most liable to blush. Although exposure to alternations of temperature, &c, has probably much increased the power of dilatation and contraction in the capillaries of the face and adjoining parts, yet this by itself will hardly account for these parts blushing much more than the rest of the body ; for it does not explain the fact of the hands rarely blushing. With Europeans the whole body tingles slightly when the face blushes intensely; and with the races of men who habitually go nearly naked, the blushes extend over a much larger surface than with us. These facts are, to a certain extent, intelligible, as the self-attention of primeval man, as well as of the existing races which still go naked, will not have been so exclusively confined to their faces, as is the case with the people who now go clothed. We have seen that in all parts of the world persons who feel shame for some moral delinquency, are apt to avert, bend down, or hide their faces, independently of any thought about their personal appearance. The object can hardly be to conceal their blushes, for the face is thus averted or hidden under circumstances which exclude any desire to conceal shame, as when guilt is fully confessed and repented of. It is, however, probable that primeval man before he had acquired 26 See, for evidence on this subject, ' The Descent of Man,' &c, vol. ii. pp. 71, 341. 330 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. much moral sensitiveness would have been highly sen- sitive about his personal appearance, at least in refer- ence to the other sex, and he would consequently have felt distress at any depreciatory remarks about his appearance; and this is one form of shame. And as the face is the part of the body which is most regarded, it is intelligible that any one ashamed of his personal appearance would desire to conceal this part of his body. The habit having been thus acquired, would naturally be carried on when shame from strictly moral causes was felt ; and it is not easy otherwise to see why under these circumstances there should be a desire to hide the face more than any other part of the body. The habit, so general with every one who feels ashamed, of turning away, or lowering his eyes, or rest- lessly moving them from side to side, probably follows from each glance directed towards those present, bringing home the conviction that he is intently regarded; and he endeavours, by not looking at those present, and especially not at their eyes, momentarily to escape from this painful conviction. j. — This odd state of mind, often called shamefacedness, or false shame, or mauvaise honte, ap- pears to be one of the most efficient of all the causes of blushing. Shyness is, indeed, chiefly recognized by the face reddening, by the eyes being averted or cast down, and by awkward, nervous movements of the body. Many a woman blushes from this cause, a hundred, perhaps a thousand times, to once that she blushes from having done anything deserving blame, and of which she is truly ashamed. Shyness seems to depend on sen- sitiveness to the opinion, whether good or bad, of others, more especially with respect to external appear- ance. Strangers neither know nor care anything about i Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 331 our conduct or character, but they may, and often do, criticize our appearance: hence shy persons are particularly apt to be shy and to blush in the presence of strangers. The consciousness of anything peculiar, or even new, in the dress, or any slight blemish on the person, and more especially on the face — points which are likely to attract the attention of strangers — makes the shy intolerably shy. On the other hand, in those cases in which conduct and not personal appearance is con- cerned, we are much more apt to be shy in the presence of acquaintances, whose judgment we in some degree value, than in that of strangers. A physician told me that a young man, a wealthy duke, with whom he had travelled as medical attendant, blushed like a girl, when he paid him his fee; yet this young man probably would not have blushed and been shy, had he been paying a bill to a tradesman. Some persons, however, are so sensitive, that the mere act of speaking to almost any one is sufficient to rouse their self-conscious- ness, and a slight blush is the result. Disapprobation or ridicule, from our sensitiveness on this head, causes shyness and blushing much more readily than does approbation ; though the latter with some persons is highly efficient. The conceited are rarely shy ; for they value themselves much too highly to expect depreciation. Why a proud man is often hy, as appears to be the case, is not so obvious, unless be that, with all his self-reliance, he really thinks much about the opinion of others, although in a dis- dainful spirit. Persons who are exceedingly shy are rarely shy in the presence of those with whom they are quite familiar, and of whose good opinion and sympathy they are perfectly assured; — for instance, a girl in the presence of her mother. I neglected to inquire in my printed paper whether shyness can be detected 332 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. in the different races of man; but a Hindoo gentle- man assured Mr. Erskine that it is recognizable in his countrymen. Shyness, as the derivation of the word indicates in several languages,27 is closely related to fear ; yet it is distinct from fear in the ordinary sense. A shy man no doubt dreads the notice of strangers, but can hardly be said to be afraid of them ; he may be as bold as a hero in battle, and yet have no self-confidence about trifles in the presence of strangers. Almost every one is extremely nervous when first addressing a public assembly, and most men remain so throughout their lives ; but this appears to depend on the consciousness of a great coming exertion, with its associated effects on the system, rather than on shyness;28 although a timid or shy man no doubt suffers on such occasions infinitely more than another. With very young children it is difficult to distinguish between fear and shyness ; but this latter feeling with them has often seemed to me to partake of the character of the wildness of an untamed animal. Shyness comes on at a very early age. In one of my own children, when two years and three months old, I saw a trace of what certainly appeared to be shyness, directed towards myself after an absence from home of only a week. This was shown not by a blush, but by the eyes being for a few minutes slightly averted from me. I have noticed on other occasions that shyness or shamefacedness and real shame are exhibited in the eyes of young children before they have acquired the power of blushing. 27 H. Wedgwood, Diet. English Etymology, vol. iii. 1865, p. 184. So with the Latin word vereeundus. 28 Mr. Bain (' The Emotions and the Will,' p. 64) has discussed the u abashed " feelings experienced on these occasions, as well as the stage-fright of actors unused to the stage. Mr. Bain apparently attri- butes these feelings to simple apprehension or dread. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 333 As shyness apparently depends on self-attention, we can perceive how right are those who maintain that re- prehending children for shyness, instead of doing them any good, does much harm, as it calls their attention still more closely to themselves. It has been well urged that " nothing hurts young people more than to " be watched continually about their feelings, to have " their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their " sensibility measured by the surveying eye of the un- * merciful spectator. Under the constraint of such " examinations they can think of nothing but that they " are looked atr and feel nothing but shame or appre- hension."29 Moral causes- :' guilt. — With respect to blushing from strictly moral causes, we meet with the same- funda- mental principle as before, namely, regard for the opinion of others. It is not the conscience- which raises a blush, for a man may sincerely regret some slight fault committed in solitude, or he may suffer the deepest remorse for an undetected crime, but he will not blusk " I blush," says Dr. Burgess,30 " in the presence " of my accusers." It is not the sense of guilt, but the thought that others think or know us to be guilty which crimsons the face. A man may feel thoroughly ashamed at having told a small falsehood, without blushing;- but if he even suspects that he is detected he will instantly blush, especially if detected by one whom he reveres. On the other handr a man may be convinced that God witnesses all his actions,, and he may feel deeply conscious of some fault and pray for forgiveness ; but 29 " Essays on Practical Education,' By Maria and R. L. Edgeworth, new edit. vol. ii. 1822, p. 38; Dr. Burgess (ibid. p. 187) insists strongly to the same effect. 30 Ibid. p. 50. 334 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. this will not, as a lady who is a great blusher believes, ever excite a blush. The explanation of this difference between the knowledge by God and man of our actions lies, I presume, in man's disapprobation of immoral conduct being somewhat akin in nature to his depre- ciation of our personal appearance, so that through association both lead to similar results ; whereas the disapprobation of God brings up no such association. Many a person has blushed intensely when accused of some crime, though completely innocent of it. Even the thought, as the lady before referred to has observed to me, that others think that we have made an unkind or stupid remark, is amply sufficient to cause a blush, although we know all the time that we have been com- pletely misunderstood. An action may be meritorious or of an indifferent nature, but a sensitive person, if he suspects that others take a different view of it, will blush. For instance, a lady by herself may give money to a beggar without a trace of a blush, but if others are present, and she doubts whether they approve, or suspects that they think her influenced by display, she will blush. So it will be, if she offers to relieve the distress of a decayed gentlewoman, more particularly of one whom she had previously known under better circumstances, as she cannot then feel sure how her conduct will be viewed. But such cases as these blend into shyness. Breaches of etiquette. — The rules of etiquette always refer to conduct in the presence of, or towards others. They have no necessary connection with the moral sense, and are often meaningless. Nevertheless as they depend on the fixed custom of our equals and superiors, whose opinion we highly regard, they are considered almost as binding as are the laws of honour to a Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 335 gentleman. Consequently the breach of the laws of etiquette, that is, any impoliteness or gaucherie, any impropriety, or an inappropriate remark, though quite accidental, will cause the most intense blushing of which a man is capable. Even the recollection of such an act, after an interval of many years, will make the whole body to tingle. So strong, also, is the power of sympathy that a sensitive person, as a lady has assured me, will sometimes blush at a flagrant breach of etiquette by a perfect stranger, though the act may in no way concern her. Modesty. — This is another powerful agent in exciting blushes ; but the word modesty includes very different states of the mind. It implies humility, and we often judge of this by persons being greatly pleased and blushing at slight praise, or by being annoyed at praise which seems to them too high according to their own humble standard of themselves. Blushing here has the usual signification of regard for the opinion of others. But modesty frequently relates to acts of indelicacy; and indelicacy is an affair of etiquette, as we clearly see with the nations that go altogether or nearly naked. He who is modest, and blushes easily at acts of this nature, does so because they are breaches of a firmly and wisely established etiquette. This is indeed shown by the derivation of the word modest from modus, a measure or standard of behaviour. A blush due to this form of modesty is, moreover, apt to be intense, because it generally relates to the opposite sex ; and we have seen how in all cases our liability to blush is thus in- creased. We apply the term ' modest,' as it would appear, to those who have an humble opinion of themselves, and to those who are extremely sensitive about an indelicate word or deed, simply because in both cases 336 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. blushes are readily excited, for these two frames of mind have nothing else in common. Shyness also, from this same cause, is often mistaken for modesty in the sense of humility. Some persons flush up, as I have observed and have been assured, at any sudden and disagreeable recol- lection. The commonest cause seems to be the sudden remembrance of not having done something for another person which had been promised. In this case it may be that the thought passes half unconsciously through the mind, " What will he think of me ?" and then the flush would partake of the nature of a true blush. But whether such flushes are in most cases due to the capillary circulation being affected, is very doubtful; for we must remember that almost every strong emo- tion, such as anger or great joy, acts on the heart, and causes the face to redden. The fact that blushes may be exeited in absolute solitude seems opposed to the view here taken, namely that the habit originally arose from thinking about what others think of us. Several ladies, who are great blushers, are unanimous in regard to' solitude ; and some of them believe that they have blushed in the dark. From what Mr. Forbes has stated with respect to the Aymaras, and from my own sensations, I have no doubt that this latter statement is correct. Shakspeare, therefore, erred when he made Juliet, who was not even by herself, say to Komeo (act ii. sc. 2) : — " Thou know'st the mask of night is on my face ; Else would a maiden blush bepaint my cheek, For that which thou hast heard me speak to-night." But when a blush is excited in solitude, ,the cause almost always relates to the thoughts of others about us — to acts done in their presence, or suspected by them; Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 337 or again when we reflect what others would have thought of us had they known of the act. Nevertheless one or two of my informants believe that they have blushed from shame at acts in no way relating to others. If this be so, we must attribute the result to the force of inveterate habit and association, under a state of mind closely analogous to that which ordinarily excites a blush ; nor need we feel surprise at this, as even sym- pathy with another person who commits a flagrant breach of etiquette is believed, as we have just seen, sometimes to cause a blush. Finally, then, I conclude that blushing, — whether due to shyness — to shame for a real crime — to shame from a breach of the laws of etiquette — to modesty from humility — to modesty from an indelicacy — depends in all cases on the same principle ; this principle being a sensitive regard for the opinion, more particularly for the depreciation of others, primarily in relation to our personal appearance, especially of our faces ; and secondarily, through the force of association and habit, in relation to the opinion of others on our conduct. Theory of Blushing. — We have now to consider, why should the thought that others are thinking about us affect our capillary circulation ? Sir C. Bell insists 31 that blushing " is a provision for expression, as may be " inferred from the colour extending only to the surface " of the face, neck, and breast, the parts most exposed. " It is not acquired ; it is from the beginning." Dr. Burgess believes that it was designed by the Creator in " order that the soul might have sovereign power of " displaying in the cheeks the various internal emotions 31 Bell, ' Anatomy of Expression,' p. 95. Burgess, as quoted below, ibid. p. 49. Gratiolet, De la Phys. p. 94. Z 338 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. " of the moral feelings ; " so as to serve as a check on ourselves, and as a sign to others, that we were violating rules which ought to be held sacred. Gratiolet merely remarks, — " Or, comme il est dans Pordre de la nature " que l'&tre social le plus intelligent soit aussi le plus " intelligible, cette faculte de rougeur et de paleur qui " distingue l'homme, est un signe naturel de sa haute " perfection." The belief that blushing was specially designed by the Creator is opposed to the general theory of evolu- tion, which is now so largely accepted ; but it forms no part of my duty here to argue on the general ques- tion. Those who believe in design, will find it difficult to account for shyness being the most frequent and efficient of all the causes of blushing, as it makes the blusher to suffer and the beholder uncomfortable, with- out being of the least service to either of them. They will also find it difficult to account for negroes and other dark-coloured races blushing, in whom a change of colour in the skin is scarcely or not at all visible. No doubt a slight blush adds to the beauty of a maiden's face; and the Circassian women who are capable of blushing, invariably fetch a higher price in the seraglio of the Sultan than less susceptible women.32 But the firmest believer in the efficacy of sexual selec- tion will hardly suppose that blushing was acquired as a sexual ornament. This view would also be opposed to what has just been said about the dark-coloured races blushing in an invisible manner. The hypothesis which appears to me the most pro- bable, though it may at first seem rash, is that atten- tion closely directed to any part of the body tends to 32 On the authority of Lady Mary Wortley Montague ; see Burgess ibid. p. 43. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 339 interfere with the ordinary and tonic contraction of the small arteries of that part. These vessels, in conse- quence, become at such times more or less relaxed, and are instantly filled with arterial blood. This tendency will have been much strengthened, if frequent attention has been paid during many generations to the same part, owing to nerve-force readily flowing along accustomed channels, and by the power of inheritance. Whenever we believe that others are depreciating or even con- sidering our personal appearance, our attention is vividly directed to the outer and visible parts of our bodies; and of all such parts we are most sensitive about our faces, as no doubt has been the case during many past generations. Therefore, assuming for the moment that the capillary vessels can be acted on by close attention, those of the face will have become eminently susceptible. Through the force of associa- tion, the same effects will tend to follow whenever we think that others are considering or censuring our actions or character. As the basis of this theory rests on mental attention having some power to influence the capillary circula- tion, it will be necessary to give a considerable body of details, bearing more or less directly on this subject. Several observers,33 who from their wide experience 33 In England, Sir H. Holland was, I believe, the first to consider the influence of mental attention on various parts of the body, in his 1 Medical Notes and Keflections,' 1839, p. 64. This essay, much en- larged, was reprinted by Sir H. Holland in his ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 79, from which work I always quote. At nearly the same time, as well as subsequently, Prof. Laycock discussed the same subject : see ' Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal,' 1839, July, pp. 17-22. Also his ' Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110 ; and « Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Dr. Car- penter's views on mesmerism have a nearly similar bearing. The great physiologist Muller treated (' Elements of Physiology,' Eng. transkt. z 2 340 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. and knowledge are eminently capable of forming a sound judgment, are convinced that attention or con- sciousness (which latter term Sir H. Holland thinks the more explicit) concentrated on almost any part of the body produces some direct physical effect on it. This applies to the movements of the involuntary muscles, and of the voluntary muscles when acting involuntarily, — to the secretion of the glands, — to the activity of the senses and sensations, — and even to the nutrition of parts. It is known that the involuntary movements of the heart are affected if close attention be paid to them. Gratiolet 34 gives the case of a man, who by continually watching and counting his own pulse, at last caused one beat out of every six to intermit. On the other hand, my father told me of a careful observer, who certainly had heart-disease and died from it, and who positively stated that his pulse was habitually irre- gular to an extreme degree ; yet to his great disap- pointment it invariably became regular as soon as my father entered the room. Sir H. Holland remarks,35 that " the effect upon the circulation of a part from the " consciousness suddenly directed and fixed upon it, " is often obvious and immediate." Professor Laycock, who has particularly attended to phenomena of this nature,36 insists that " when the attention is directed " to any portion of the body, innervation and circula- " tion are excited locally, and the functional activity of " that portion developed." vol. ii. pp. 937, 1085) of the influence of the attention on the senses. Sir J. Paget discusses the influence of the mind on the nutrition of parts, in his ' Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 1853, vol. i. p. 39 : I quote from the 3rd edit, revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, p. 28. See, also, Gratiolet, De la Phys. pp. 283-287. 84 De la Phys. p. 283. 35 4 Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, p. 111. 3S ■ Mind and Brain,' vol. ii. 1860, p. 327. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 341 It is generally believed that the peristaltic move- ments of the intestines are influenced by attention being paid to them at fixed recurrent periods ; and these movements depend on the contraction of unstriped and involuntary muscles. The abnormal action of the voluntary muscles in epilepsy, chorea, and hysteria is known to be influenced by the expectation of an attack, and by the sight of other patients similarly affected.37 So it is with the involuntary acts of yawning and laughing. Certain glands are much influenced by thinking of them, or of the conditions under which they have been habitually excited. This is familiar to every one in the increased flow of saliva, when the thought, for in- stance, of intensely acid fruit is kept before the mind.38 It was shown in our sixth chapter, that an earnest and long-continued desire either to repress, or to in- crease, the action of the lacrymal glands is effectual. Some curious cases have been recorded in the case of women, of the power of the mind on the mammary glands ; and still more remarkable ones in relation to the uterine functions.39 37 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' pp. 104-106. 38 See Gratiolet on this subject, De la Phys. p. 287. 39 Dr. J. Crichton Browne, from his observations on the insane, is convinced that attention directed for a prolonged period on any part or organ may ultimately influence its capillary circulation and nutrition. He has given me some extraordinary cases; one of these, which cannot here be related in full, refers to a married woman fifty years of age, who laboured under the firm and long-continued delusion that she was pregnant. When the expected period arrived, she acted pre- cisely as if she had been really delivered of a child, and seemed to suffer extreme pain, so that the perspiration broke out on her forehead. The result was that a state of things returned, continuing for three days, which had ceased during the six previous years. Mi'. Braid gives, in his ' Magic, Hypnotism,' &c, 1852, p. 95, and in his other works, analogous cases, as well as other facts showing the great in- fluence of the will on the mammary glands, even on one breast alone. 342 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. When we direct our whole attention to any one sense, its acuteness is increased;40 and the continued habit of close attention, as with blind people to that of hearing, and with the blind and deaf to that of touch, appears to improve the sense in question per- manently. There is, also, some reason to believe, judging from the capacities of different races of man, that the effects are inherited. Turning to ordinary sensations, it is well known that pain is increased by attending to it ; and Sir B. Brodie goes so far as to believe that pain may be felt in any part of the body to which attention is closely drawn.41 Sir H. Holland also remarks that we become not only conscious of the existence of a part subjected to concentrated attention, but we experience in it various odd sensations, as of weight, heat, cold, tingling, or itching.42 Lastly, some physiologists maintain that the mind can influence the nutrition of parts. Sir J. Paget has given a curious instance of the power, not in- deed of the mind, but of the nervous system, on the hair. A lady " who is subject to attacks of what is " called nervous headache, always finds in the morning " after such an one, that some patches of her hair " are white, as if powdered with starch. The change " is effected in a night, and in a few days after, the " hairs gradually regain their dark brownish colour."43 40 Dr. Maudsley has given (' The Physiology and Pathology of Mind,' 2nd edit. 1868, p. 105), on good authority, some curious statements with respect to the improvement of the sense of touch by practice and atten- tion. It is remarkable that when this sense has thus been rendered more acute at any point of the body, for instance, in a finger, it is likewise improved at the corresponding point on the opposite side of the body. 41 'The Lancet,' 1838, pp. 39-40, as quoted by Prof. Laycock, 1 Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110. 42 ' Chapters on Mental Physiology,' 1858, pp. 91-93. 43 'Lectures on Surgical Pathology,' 3rd edit, revised by Prof. Turner, 1870, pp. 28, 31. CnAr. XIII. BLUSHING. 343 We thus see that close attention certainly affects various parts and organs, which are not properly under the control of the will. By what means attention — perhaps the most wonderful of all the wondrous powers of the mind — is effected, is an extremely obscure subject. According to Miiller,44 the process by which the sensory cells of the brain are rendered, through the will, susceptible of receiving more intense and dis- tinct impressions, is closely analogous to that by which the motor cells are exeited to send nerve-force to the voluntary muscles. There are many points of analogy in the action of the sensory and motor nerve-cells ; for instance, the familiar fact that close attention to any one sense causes fatigue, like the prolonged exertion of any one muscle.45 When therefore we voluntarily concentrate our attention on any part of the body, the cells of the brain which receive impressions or sensa- tions from that part are, it is probable, in some un- known manner stimulated into activity. This may account, without any local change in the part to which our attention is earnestly directed, for pain or odd sen- sations being there felt or increased. If, however, the part is furnished with muscles, we cannot feel sure, as Mr. Michael Foster has remarked to me, that some slight impulse may not be uncon- sciously sent to such muscles ; and this would probably cause an obscure sensation in the part In a large number of cases, as with the salivary and lacrymal glands, intestinal canal, &c, the power of attention seems to rest, either chiefly, or as some phy- siologists think, exclusively, on the vaso-motor system being affected in such a manner that more blood is 44 ' Elements of Physiology,' Eng. translat. vol. ii. p. 938. 45 Prof. Laycock has discussed this point in a very interesting manner. See his * Nervous Diseases of Women,' 1840, p. 110. 344 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. allowed to flow into the capillaries of the part in ques- tion. This increased action of the capillaries may in some cases be combined with the simultaneously in- creased activity of the sensorium. The manner in which the mind affects the vaso- motor system may be conceived in the following manner. When we actually taste sour fruit, an im- pression is sent through the gustatory nerves to a certain part of the sensorium; this transmits nerve- force to the vaso-motor centre, which consequently allows the muscular coats of the small arteries that permeate the salivary glands to relax. Hence more blood flows into these glands, and they secrete a copious supply of saliva. Now it does not seem an improbable assumption, that, when we reflect intently on a sensa- tion, the same part of the sensorium, or a closely con- nected part of it, is brought into a state of activity, in the same manner as when we actually perceive the sensation. If so, the same cells in the brain will be excited, though, perhaps, in a less degree, by vividly thinking about a sour taste, as by perceiving it; and they will transmit in the one case, as in the other, nerve- force to the vaso-motor centre with the same results. To give another, and, in some respects, more appro- priate illustration. If a man stands before a hot fire, his face reddens. This appears to be due, as Mr. Michael Foster informs me, in part to the local action of the heat, and in part to a reflex action from the vaso-motor centres.46 In this latter case, the heat affects the nerves of the face; these transmit an impression to the sensory cells of the brain, which act on the 46 See, also, Mr. Michael Foster, on the action of the vaso-motor system, in his interesting Lecture before the Koyal Institution, as translated in the 'Revue des Cours Scientifiques,' Sept. 25, 1869, p. 683. Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 345 vaso-motor centre, and this reacts on the small arteries of the face, relaxing them and allowing them to become filled with blood. Here, again, it seems not improbable that if we were repeatedly to concentrate with great earnestness our attention on the recollection of our heated faces, the same part of the sensorium which gives us the consciousness of actual heat would be in some slight degree stimulated, and would in conse- quence tend to transmit some nerve-force to the vaso- motor centres, so as to relax the capillaries of the face. Now as men during endless generations have had their attention often and earnestly directed to their personal appearance, and especially to their faces, any incipient tendency in the facial capillaries to be thus affected will have become in the course of time greatly strength- ened through the principles just referred to, namely, nerve-force passing readily along accustomed channels, and inherited habit. Thus, as it appears to me, a plausible explanation is afforded of the leading pheno- mena connected with the act of blushing. Recapitulation* — Men and women, and especially the young, have always valued, in a high degree, their personal appearance ; and have likewise regarded the appearance of others. The face has been the chief object of attention, though, when man aboriginally went naked, the whole surface of his body would have been attended to. Our self-attention is excited almost exclusively by the opinion of others, for no person living in absolute solitude would care about his appearance. Every one feels blame more acutely than praise. Now, whenever we know, or suppose, that others are depreciating our personal appearance, our attention is strongly drawn towards ourselves, more especially to our faces. The probable effect of this will be, as has just been ex- 346 BLUSHING. Chap. XIII. plained, to excite into activity that part of the senso- rium which receives the sensory nerves of the face; and this will react through the vaso-motor system on the facial capillaries. By frequent reiteration during numberless generations, the process will have become so habitual, in association with the belief that others are thinking of us, that even a suspicion of their depreciation suffices to relax the capillaries, without any conscious thought about our faees. With some sensitive persons it is enough even to notice their dress to produce the same effect. Through the force, also, of association and inheritance our capillaries are relaxed, whenever we know, or imagine, that any one is blaming, though in silence, our actions, thoughts, or character ; and, again, when we are highly praised. On this hypothesis we can understand how it is that the face blushes much more than any other part of the body, though the whole surface is somewhat affected, more especially with the races which still go nearly naked. It is not at all surprising that the dark- coloured races should blush, though no change of colour is visible in their skins. From the principle of inheritance it is not surprising that persons born blind should blush. We can understand why the young are much more affected than the old, and women more than men ; and why the opposite sexes especially excite each other's blushes. It becomes obvious why personal remarks should be particularly liable to cause blushing, and why the most powerful of all the causes is shyness; for shyness relates to the presence and opinion of others, and the shy are always more or less self-conscious. With respect to real shame from moral delinquencies, we can perceive why it is not guilt, but the thought that others think us guilty, which raises a blush. A man reflecting on a crime committed in Chap. XIII. BLUSHING. 347 solitude, and stung by his conscience, does not blush ; yet he will blush under the vivid recollection of a detected fault, or of one committed in the presence of others, the degree of blushing being closely related to the feeling of regard for those who have detected, witnessed, or suspected his fault. Breaches of con- ventional rules of conduct, if they are rigidly insisted on by our equals or superiors, often cause more intense blushes even than a detected crime ; and an act which is really criminal, if not blamed by our equals, hardly raises a tinge of colour on our cheeks. Modesty from humility, or from an indelicacy, excites a vivid blush, as both relate to the judgment or fixed customs of others. From the intimate sympathy which exists between the capillary circulation of the surface of the head and of the brain, whenever there is intense blushing, there will be some, and often great, confusion of mind. This is fre- quently accompanied by awkward movements, and some- times by the involuntary twitching of certain muscles. As blushing, according to this hypothesis, is an in- direct result of attention, originally directed to our personal appearance, that is to the surface of the body, and more especially to the face, we can understand the meaning of the gestures which accompany blushing throughout the world. These consist in hiding the face, or turning it towards the ground, or to one side. The eyes are generally averted or are restless, for to look at the man who causes us to feel shame or shy- ness, immediately brings home in an intolerable man- ner the consciousness that his gaze is directed on us. Through the principle of associated habit, the same movements of the face and eyes are practised, and can, indeed, hardly be avoided, whenever we know or believe that others are blaming, or too strongly praising, our moral conduct. 348 CONCLUDING KEMAKKS Chap. XIV. CHAPTEE XIV. Concluding Kemarks and Summary. The three leading principles which have determined the chief move- ments of expression — Their inheritance — On the part which the will and intention have played in the acquirement of various expressions — The instinctive recognition of expression — The bearing of our subject on the specific unity of the races of man — _ On the successive acquirement of various expressions by the pro- genitors of man — The importance of expression — Conclusion. I have now described, to the best of my ability, the chief expressive actions in man, and in some few of the lower animals. I have also attempted to explain the origin or development of these actions through the three principles given in the first chapter. The first of these principles is, that movements which are ser- viceable in gratifying some desire, or in relieving some sensation, if often repeated, become so habitual that they are performed, whether or not of any service, whenever the same desire or sensation is felt, even in a very weak degree. Our second principle is that of antithesis. The habit of voluntarily performing opposite movements under opposite impulses has become firmly established in us by the practice of our whole lives. Hence, if certain actions have been regularly performed, in accordance with our first principle, under a certain frame of mind, there will be a strong and involuntary tendency to the performance of directly opposite actions, whether or not these are of any use, under the excitement of an oppo- site frame of mind. Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 349 Our third principle is the direct action of the excited nervous system on the body, independently of the will, (and independently, in large part, of habit. Experience shows that nerve-force is generated and set free whenever the cerebro-spinal system is excited. The direction which this nerve-force follows is necessarily determined by the lines of connection between the nerve-cells, with each other and with various parts of the body. But the direction is likewise much in- fluenced by habit; inasmuch as nerve-force passes readily along accustomed channels. The frantic and senseless actions of an enraged man may be attributed in part to the undirected flow ' of nerve-force, and in part to the effects of habit, for these actions often vaguely represent the act of striking. They thus pass into gestures included under our first principle ; as when an indignant man unconsciously throws himself into a fitting attitude for attacking his opponent, though without any intention of making an actual attack. We see also the influence of habit in all the emotions and sensations which are called ex- citing; for they have assumed this character from having habitually led to energetic action; and action affects, in an indirect manner, the respiratory and circulatory system ; and the latter reacts on the brain. Whenever these emotions or sensations are even slightly felt by us, though they may not at the time lead to any exertion, our whole system is never- theless disturbed through the force of habit and asso- ciation. Other emotions and sensations are called depressing, because they have not habitually led to energetic action, excepting just at first, as in the case of extreme pain, fear, and grief, and they have ulti- mately caused complete exhaustion; they are con- sequently expressed chiefly by negative signs and by 350 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS Chap. XIV. prostration. Again, there are other emotions, such as that of affection, which do not commonly lead to action of any kind, and consequently are not exhibited by any strongly marked outward signs. Affection indeed, in as far as it is a pleasurable sensation, excites the ordinary signs of pleasure. On the other hand, many of the effects due to the excitement of the nervous system seem to be quite independent of the flow of nerve-force along the chan- nels which have been rendered habitual by former exertions of the will. Such effects, which often reveal the state of mind of the person thus affected, cannot at present be explained; for instance, the change of colour in the hair from extreme terror or grief,— the cold sweat and the trembling of the muscles from fear, — the modified secretions of the intestinal canal, — and the failure of certain glands to act. Notwithstanding that much remains unintelligible^ in^pjir^iresent subject, so many expressive movements and actions can be explained to a certain extent through the above three principles, that we may hope hereafter to see all explained by these or by closely analogous principles. Actions of all kinds, if regularly accompanying any state of the mind, are at once recognised as expressive. These may consist of movements of any part of the body, as the wagging of a dog's tail, the shrugging of a man's shoulders, the erection of the hair, the exuda- tion of perspiration, the state of the capillary circu- lation, laboured breathing, and the use of the vocal or other sound-producing instruments. Even insects express anger, terror, jealousy, and love by their stridu- lation. With man the respiratory organs are of especial importance in expression, not only in a direct, but in a still higher degree in an indirect manner. ( h u . XIV. AND SUMMARY. 351 Few points are more interesting in our present sub- ject than the extraordinarily complex chain of events which lead to certain expressive movements. Take, for instance, the oblique eyebrows of a man suffering from grief or anxiety. When infants scream loudly from hunger or pain, the circulation is affected, and the eyes tend to become gorged with blood: conse- quently the muscles surrounding the eyes are strongly contracted as a protection: this action, in the course of many generations, has become firmly fixed and in- herited : but when, with advancing years and culture, the habit of screaming is partially repressed, the muscles round the eyes still tend to contract, when- ever even slight distress is felt : of these muscles, the pyramidals of the nose are less under the control of the will than are the others, and their contraction can be cheeked only by that of the central fasciae of the frontal muscle : these latter fasciae draw up the inner ends of the eyebrows, and wrinkle the forehead in a peculiar manner, which we instantly recognise as the expression of grief or anxiety. Slight movements, such as these just described, or the scarcely perceptible drawing down of the corners of the mouth, are the last remnants or rudiments of strongly marked and intelligible movements. They are as full of signifi- cance to us in regard to expression, as are ordinary rudiments to the naturalist in the classification and genealogy of organic beings. ■*- — ^^ That the chief expressive actions, exhibited by man and by the lower animals, are now innate or inherited^ — that is, have not been learnt by the individual, — is admitted by every one. So little has learning or imi- tation tcT^cIo* wltk several of them that they are from the earliest days and throughout life quite be- yond our control ; for instance, the relaxation of OC 352 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. the arteries of the skin in blushing, and the increased action of the heart in anger. We may see children, only two or three years old, and even those born blind, blushing from shame ; and the naked scalp of a very young infant reddens from passion. Infants scream from pain directly after birth, and all their features then assume the same form as during subsequent years. These facts alone suffice to show that many of our most important expressions have not been learnt ; but it is remarkable that some, which are certainly innate, require practice in the individual, before they are per- formed in a full and perfect manner; for instance, weeping and laughing. The inheritance of most of our expressive actions explains the fact that those born blind display them, as I hear from the Kev. K. R. Blair, equally well with those gifted with eyesight. We can thus also understand the fact that the young and the old of widely different races, both with man and animals, express the same state of mind by the same movements. We are so familiar with the fact of young and old animals displaying their feelings in the same manner, that we hardly perceive how remarkable it is that a young puppy should wag its tail when pleased, depress its ears and uncover its canine teeth when pretending to be savage, just like an old dog ; or that a kitten should arch its little back and erect its hair when frightened and angry, like an old cat. When, how- ever, we turn to less common gestures in ourselves, which we are accustomed to look at as artificial or conventional, — such as shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence, or the raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers, as a sign of wonder, — we feel perhaps too much surprise at finding that they are innate. That these and some other gestures are in- Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 353 herited, we may infer from their being performed by very young children, by those born blind, and by the most widely distinct races of man. We should also bear in mind that new and highly peculiar tricks, in association with certain states of the mind, are known to have arisen in certain individuals, and to have been afterwards transmitted to their offspring, in some cases, for more than one generation. Certain other gestures, which seem to us so natural that we might easily imagine that they were innate, apparently have been learnt like the words of a lan- guage. This seems to be the case with the joining of the uplifted hands, and the turning up of the eyes, in prayer. So it is with kissing as a mark of affection ; but this is innate, in so far as it depends on the plea- sure derived from contact with a beloved person. The evidence with respect to the inheritance of nodding and shaking the head, as signs of affirmation and nega- tion, is doubtful ; for they are not universal, yet seem too general to have been independently acquired by all the individuals of so many races. We will now consider how far the will and conscious- ness have come into play in the development of the various movements of expression. As far as we can judge, only a few expressive movements, such as those just referred to, arej.earnt by each individual; that is, were consciously and voluntarily performed during the early years of life for some definite object, or in imitation of others, and then became habitual. The far greater number of the movements of expression, and all the more important ones, are, as we have seen, innate or inherited ; 'knd such cannot be said to depend on_the will bTtheindividual. Nevertheless, all those included under our first principle were at first volun- Tl — " 354 CONCLUDING EEMAKKS Chap. XI V. tarily performed for a definite object, — namely, to escape some danger, to relieve some distress, or to gratify some desire. For instance, there can hardly be a doubt that the animals which fight with their teeth, have acquired the habit of drawing back their ears closely to their heads, when feeling savage, from their progenitors having voluntarily acted in this manner in order to protect their ears from being torn by their antagonists; for those animals which do not fight with their teeth do not thus express a savage state of mind. We may infer as highly probable that we ourselves have acquired the habit of contracting the muscles round the eyes, whilst crying gently, that is, without the utterance of any loud sound, from our progenitors, especially during infancy, having expe- / rienced, during the act of screaming, an uncomfortable sensation in their eyeballs. Again, some highly ex- pressive movements result from the endeavour to check or prevent other expressive movements ; thus the obli- quity of the eyebrows and the drawing down of the corners of the mouth follow from the endeavour to prevent a screaming-fit from coming on, or to check it after it has come on. Here it is obvious that the con- sciousness and will must at first have come into play ; f)t that we are conscious in these or in other such ,ses what muscles are brought into action, any more Lan when we perform the most ordinary voluntary ovements. With respect to the expressive movements due to n the principle of antithesis, it is clear that the will has intervened, though in a remote and indirect manner. So again with the movements coming under our third principle ; these, in as far as they are influenced by~ nerve-force readily passing along habitual channels, have been determined by former and repeated exer- n Chap. XIV. AND SUMMAEY. 355 tions of the will. The effects indirectly due to this latter agency are often combined in a complex manner, through the force of habit and association, with those directly resulting from the excitement of the cerebro- spinal system. This seems to be the case with the in- creased action of the heart under the influence of any strong emotion. When an animal erects its hair, as- sumes a threatening attitude, and utters fierce sounds, in order to terrify an enemy, we see a curious comiii- nation__oX movements which were originally voluntary with jthose that are involuntary. It is, however, possible that even strictly involuntary actions, such as the erection of the hair, may have been affected by the mysterious power of the will. Some expressive movements may have arisen spon- taneously, in "association with certain states of the~~mihd, like the tricks lately referred to, and afterwards been inherited. But I know of no evidence rendering this view probable. The power of communication between the members of the same tribe by means of language has been of paramount importance in the development of man ; and the force of language is much aided by the expres- sive movements of the face and body. We perceive this at once when we converse on an important sub- ject with any person whose face is concealed. Never- theless there are no grounds, as far as I can discover, for believing that any muscle has been developed or even modified exclusively for the sake of expression. The vocal and other sound-producing organs, by which various expressive noises are produced, seem to form a partial exception ; but I have elsewhere attempted to show that these organs were first developed for sexual purposes, in order that one sex might call or charm the other. Nor can I discover grounds for believing that 2 a 2 356 CONCLUDING EEMAEKS Chap. XIV. any inherited movement, which now serves as a means of expression, was at first voluntarily and consciously performed for this special purpose, — like some of the gestures and the finger-language used by the deaf and /dumb. On the contrary, every true or inherited move- s'' ment of expression seems to have had some natural and independent origin. But when once acquired, such movements may be voluntarily and consciously em- ployed as a means of communication. Even infants, if carefully attended to, find out at a very early age that their screaming brings relief, and they soon voluntarily practise it. We may frequently see a person volun- tarily raising his eyebrows to express surprise, or smiling to express pretended satisfaction and acqui- escence. A man often wishes to make certain gestures conspicuous or demonstrative, and will raise his ex- tended arms with widely opened fingers above his head, to show astonishment, or lift his shoulders to his ears, to show that he cannot or will not do something. The tendency to such movements will be strengthened or increased by their being thus voluntarily and repeatedly performed ; and the effects may be inherited. It is perhaps worth consideration whether move- ments at first used only by one or a few individuals to express a certain state of mind may not sometimes have spread to others, and ultimately have become universal, through the power of conscious and uncon- scious imitation-. That there exists in man a strong tendency toTimitation, independently of the conscious will, is certain. This is exhibited in the most extra- ordinary manner in certain brain diseases, especially at the commencement of inflammatory softening of the brain, and has been called the " echo sign." Patients thus affected imitate, without understanding, every absurd gesture which is made, and every word which Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 357 is uttered near them, even in a foreign language.1 In the case of animals, the jackal and wolf have learnt under confinement to imitate the barking of the dog. How the barking of the dog, which serves to express various emotions and desires, and which is so remark- able from having been acquired since the animal was domesticated, and from being inherited in different degrees by different breeds, was first learnt, we do not know ; but may we not suspect that imitation has had something to do with its acquisition, owing to dogs having long lived in strict association with so loqua- cious an animal as man ? In the course of the foregoing remarks and through- out this volume, I have often felt much difficulty about the proper application of the terms, will, consciousness, and intention. Actions, which were at first volun- tary^ soon become habitual, and at last hereditary, and may then be performed even in opposition to the will. Although they often reveal the state of the mind, this result was not at first either intended or ex? pected. Even such words as that " certain movements Dp j serve as a means of expression " are apt to mislead, aWt_ they imply that this was their primary ^purpose or object. This, however, seems rarely or never to have , been the case ; the movements having been at first *T either of some direct use, or the indirect effect of the excited state of the sensorium. An infant may scream either intentionally or instinctively to show that it wants food ; but it has no wish or intention to draw its features into the peculiar form which so plainly indicates misery ; yet some of the most characteristic expressions exhibited by man are derived from the act of screaming, as has been explained. 1 See the interesting facts given by Dr.Batenian on 'Aphasia,' 1870, p. 110. 358 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. Although most of our expressive actions are innate or instinctive, as is admitted by everyone, it is a dif- ferent question whether we have any instinctive power of recognising them. This has generally been assumed to be the case ; but the assumption has been strongly controverted by M. Lemoine.2 Monkeys soon learn to distinguish, not only the tones of voice of their masters, but the expression of their faces, as is asserted by a careful observer.3 Dogs well know the difference between caressing and threatening gestures or tones; and they seem to recognise a compassionate tone. But as far as I can make out, after repeated trials, they do not understand any movement confined to the features, excepting a smile or laugh; and this they appear, at least in some cases, to recognise. This limited amount of knowledge lias probably been gained, both by monkeys and dogs, through their associating harsh or kind treatment with our actions; and the knowledge certainly is not instinctive. Children, no doubt, would soon learn the movements of expression in their elders in the same manner as animals learn those of man. Moreover, when a child cries or laughs, he knows in a general manner what he is doing and what he feels; so that a very small exertion of reason would tell him what crying or laughing meant in others. But the question is, do our chil- dren acquire their knowledge of expression solely by experience through the power of association and reason ? As most of the movements of expression must have been gradually acquired, afterwards becoming instinc- 2 * La Physionomie et la Parole,' 1865, pp. 103, 118. 3 Rengger, * Naturgeschichte der Saugethiere von Paraguay,' 1830, Chap. XIV. AND SUMMAEY. 359 tive, there seems to be some degree of a priori proba- bility that their recognition would likewise have become instinctive. There is, at least, no greater difficulty in believing this than in admitting that, when a female quadruped first bears young, she knows the cry of dis- tress of her offspring, or than in admitting that many animals instinctively recognise and fear their enemies ; I A of both these statements there can be no reasonable iubt. It is however extremely difficult to prove that ir children instinctively recognise any expression. I tended to this point in my first-born infant, who could not have learnt anything by associating with other children, and I was convinced that he understood a smile and received pleasure from seeing one, answering it by another, at much too early an age to have learnt anything by experience. When this child was about four months old, I made in his presence many odd noises and strange grimaces, and tried to look savage ; but the noises, if not too loud, as well as the grimaces, were all taken as good jokes ; and I attributed this at the time to their being preceded or accompanied by smiles. When five months old, he seemed to under- stand a compassionate expression and tone of voice. When a few days over six months old, his nurse pre- tended to cry, and I saw that his face instantly assumed a melancholy expression, with the corners of the mouth strongly depressed; now this child could rarely have seen any other child crying, and never a grown-up person crying, and I should doubt whether at so early an age he could have reasoned on the subject. There- fore it seems to me that an innate feeling must have told him that the pretended crying of his nurse ex- pressed grief ; and this through the instinct of sympathy excited grief in him. M. Lemoine argues that, if man possessed an innate 360 CONCLUDING KEMAKKS Chap. XIV. knowledge of expression, authors and artists would not have found it so difficult, as is notoriously the case, to describe and depict the characteristic signs of each particular state of mind. But this does not seem to me a valid argument. We may actually behold the expression changing in an unmistakable manner in a man or animal, and yet be quite unable, as I know from experience, to analyse the nature of the change. In the two photographs given by Duchenne of the same old man (Plate III. figs. 5 and 6), almost every one re- cognised that the one represented a true, and the other a false smile ; but I have found it very difficult to decide in what the whole amount of difference consists. It has often struck me as a curious fact that so many shades of expression are instantly recognised without any conscious process of analysis on our part. No one, I believe, can clearly describe a sullen or sly expres- sion; yet many observers are unanimous that these expressions can be recognised in the various races of man. Almost everyone to whom I showed Duchenne's photograph of the young man with oblique eyebrows (Plate II. fig. 2) at once declared that it expressed grief or some such feeling; yet probably not one of these persons, or one out of a thousand persons, could beforehand have told anything precise about the obliquity of the eyebrows with their inner ends puckered, or about the rectangular furrows on the fore- head. So it is with many other expressions, of which I have had practical experience in the trouble requisite in instructing others what points to observe. If, then, great ignorance of details does not prevent our recog- nising with certainty and promptitude various expres- sions, I do not see how this ignorance can be advanced as an argument that our knowledge, though vague and general, is not innate. Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 361 I have endeavoured to show in considerable detail that all the chief expressions exhibited by man are the same throughout the world. This fact is interesting, asTfT affords a new argument in favour of the_gejg£ral a, races being descended from a single parent-stock, which mtisirrlave been almost completely human in structure, and to a large extent in mind, before the period at which the races diverged from each other. No doubt similar structures, adapted for the same purpose, have often been independently acquired through variation and natural selection by distinct species ; but this view will not explain close similarity between distinct species in a multitude of unimportant details. Now if we bear in mind the numerous points of structure having no rela- tion to expression, in which all the races of man closely agree, and then add to them the numerous points, some of the highest importance and many of the most trifling value, on which the movements of expression directly or indirectly depend, it seems to me improbable in the highest degree that so much similarity, or rather identity of structure, could have been acquired by independent means. Yet this must have been the case if the races of man are descended from several abori- ginally distinct species. It is far more probable that the many points of close similarity in the various races are due to inheritance from a single parent-form, which had already assumed a human character. It is a curious, though perhaps an idle speculation, how early in the long line of our progenitors the various expressive movements, now exhibited by man, were successively acquired. The following remarks will at least serve to recall some of the chief points discussed in this volume. We may confidently believe that laughter, as a sign of pleasure or enjoyment, was practised by our progenitors long before they deserved 362 CONCLUDING REMARKS Chap. XIV. to be called human ; for very many kinds of monkeys, when pleased, utter a reiterated sound, clearly analogous to our laughter, often accompanied by vibratory move- ments of their jaws or lips, with the corners of the mouth drawn backwards and upwards, by the wrinkling of the cheeks, and even by the brightening of the eyes. We may likewise infer that fear was expressed from an extremely remote period, inalmost the same manner as it now is by man ; namely, by trembling, the erec- tion of the hair, cold perspiration, pallor, widely opened eyes, the relaxation of most of the muscles, and by the whole body cowering downwards or held motionless. ( Sufferinjg, if great, will from the first have caused screams" or groans to be uttered, the body to be con- torted, and the teeth to be ground together. But our progenitors will not have exhibited those highly expres- sive movements of the features which accompany screaming and crying until their circulatory and respi- ratory organs, and the muscles surrounding the eyes, had acquired their present structure. The shedding of tears appears to have originated through reflex action from the spasmodic contraction of the eyelids, together perhaps with the eyeballs becoming gorged with blood during the act of screaming. Therefore weeping probably came on rather late in the line of our descent; and this conclusion agrees with the fact that our nearest allies, the anthropomorphous apes, do not weep. But we must here exercise some caution, for as certain monkeys, which are not closely related to man, weep, this habit might have been developed long ago in a sub-branch of the group from which man is derived. Our early progenitors, when suffering from grief or anxiety, would not have made their eyebrows oblique, or have drawn down the corners of their mouth, Ciiap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 363 until they had acquired the habit of endeavouring to restrain their screams. The expression, therefore, of grief and anxiety is eminently human. ^Kage..wiil have been expressed at a very early period by^threatening or frantic gestures, by the reddening of the skin, and by glaring eyes, but not by frowning. For the habit of frowning seems to have been acquired chiefly from the corrugators being the first muscles to contract round the eyes, whenever during infancy pain, anger, or distress is felt, and there consequently is a near approach to screaming; and partly from a frown serving as a shade in difficult and intent vision. It seems pro- bable that this shading action would not have become habitual until man had assumed a completely upright position, for monkeys do not frown when exposed to a glaring light. Our early progenitors, when enraged, would probably have exposed their teeth more freely than does man, even when giving full vent to his rage, as with the insane. We may, also, feel almost certain that they would have protruded their lips, when sulky or disappointed, in a greater degree than is the case with our own children, or even with the children of existing savage races. Our early progenitors, when indignant or moderately angry, would not have held their heads erect, opened their chests, squared their shoulders, and clenched their fists, until they had acquired the ordinary carriage and upright attitude of man, and had learnt to fight with their fists or clubs. Until this period had arrived the antithetical gesture of shrugging the shoulders, as a sign of impotence or of patience, would not have been developed. From the same reason astonishment would not then have been expressed by raising the arms with open hands and extended fingers. Nor, judging from the actions of monkeys, would astonishment have been 364 CONCLUDING REMAKES Chap. XIV. exhibited by a widely open mouth ; but the eyes would have been opened and the eyebrows arched. Disgust would have been shown at a very early period by movements round the mouth, like those of vomiting, — that is, if the view which I have suggested respecting the source of the expression is correct, namely, that our progenitors had the power, and used it, of volun- tarily and quickly rejecting any food from their stomachs which they disliked. But the more refined manner of showing contempt or disdain, by lowering the eyelids, or turning away the eyes and face, as if the despised person were not worth looking at, would not probably have been acquirecHmtil a much later period. Of all expressions, blushing seems to be the most strictly human ; yet it is common to all or nearly all the races of man, whether or not any change of colour is visible in their skin. The relaxation of the small arteries of the surface, on which blushing depends, seems to have primarily resulted from earnest attention directed to the appearance of our own persons, especially of our faces, aided by habit, inheritance, and the ready flow of nerve-force along accustomed channels; and afterwards to have been extended by the power of as- sociation to self-attention directed to moral conduct. It can hardly be doubted that many animals are capable of appreciating beautiful colours and even forms, as is shown by the pains which the individuals of one sex take in displaying their beauty before those of the opposite sex. But it does not seem possible that any animal, until its mental powers had been developed to an equal or nearly equal degree with those of man, would have closely considered and been sensitive about its own personal appearance. Therefore we may con- clude that blushing originated at a very late period in the long line of our descent. Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 365 From the various facts just alluded to, and given in the course of this volume, it follows that, if the struc- ture of our organs of respiration and circulation had differed in only a slight degree from the state in which ley now exist, most of our expressions would have been wonderfully different. A very slight change in the >urse of the arteries and veins which run to the head, would probably have prevented the blood from accu- nilating in our eyeballs during violent expiration; >r this occurs in extremely few quadrupeds. In this ise we should not have displayed some of our most laracteristic expressions. If man had breathed water >y the aid of external branchiae (though the idea is irdly conceivable), instead of air through his mouth tnd nostrils, his features would not have expressed his feelings much more efficiently than now do his hands or limbs. Kage and disgust, however, would still have been shown by movements about the lips and mouth, and the eyes would have become brighter or duller according to the state of the circulation. If our ears had remained movable, their movements would have been highly expressive, as is the case with all the animals which fight with their teeth ; and we may infer that our early progenitors thus fought, as we still uncover the canine tooth on one side when we sneer at or defy any one, and we uncover all our teeth when furiously enraged. The movements of expression in the face and body, whatever their origin may have been, are in themselves of much importance for our welfare. They serve as the first means of communication between the mother and her infant ; she smiles approval, and thus encourages her child on the right path, or frowns disapproval. We readily perceive sympathy in others by their expres- 366 CONCLUDING REMAKKS Chap. XIV. sion ; our sufferings are thus mitigated and our plea- sures increased; and mutual good feeling is thus strengthened. The movements of expression give vivid- ness and energy to our spoken words. They reveal the thoughts and intentions of others more truly than do words, which may be falsified. Whatever amount of truth the so-called science of physiognomy may contain, appears to depend, as Haller long ago re- marked,4 on different persons bringing into frequent use different facial muscles, according to their disposi- tions ; the development of these muscles being perhaps thus increased, and the lines or furrows on the face, due to their habitual contraction, being thus rendered teeper and more conspicuous. The free expression by outward signs of an emotion intensifies it. On the other hand, the repression, as far as this is possible, of all outward signs softens our emotions.5 He who gives way to violent gestures will increase his rage ; he who does not control the signs of fear will experience fear in a greater degree ; and he who remains passive when overwhelmed with grief loses his best chance of recovering elasticity of mind. These results follow partly from the intimate relation which exists between almost all the emotions and their outward manifesta- tions ; and partly from the direct influence of exertion on the heart, and consequently on the brain. Even the simulation of an emotion tends to arouse it in our minds. Shakespeare, who from his wonderful knowledge of the human mind ought to be an excellent judge, says : — " Is it not monstrous that this player here, But in a fiction, in a dream of passion, - f 01 / of 4 Quoted by Moreau, in his edition ofLavater, 1820, torn. iv. p. 211. 5 Gratiolet (' De la Physionomie,' 1865, p. 66) insists on the truth of this conclusion. Chap. XIV. AND SUMMARY. 367 Could force his soul so to his own conceit, That, from her working, all his visage wann'd ; Tears in his eyes, distraction in's aspect, A broken voice, and his whole function suiting With forms to his conceit ? And all for nothing ! " Hamlet ■, act ii. sc. 2. We have seen that the study of the theory of ex- pression confirms to a certain limited extent the con- clusion that man is derived from some lower animal form, and supports the belief of the specific or sub- specific unity of the several races; but as far as my judgment serves, such confirmation was hardly needed. We have also seen that expression in itself, or the language of the emotions, as it has sometimes been called, is certainly of importance for the welfare of mankind. To understand, as far as is possible, the source or origin of the various expressions which may be hourly seen on the faces of the men around us, not to mention our domesticated animals, ought to possess much interest for us. From these several causes, we may conclude that the philosophy of our subject has well deserved the attention which it has already received from several excellent observers, and that it deserves still further attention, especially from any able physio- logist. ( 368 ) INDEX. ABSTRACTION. BULMER. A. Abstraction, 228. Actions, reflex, 35 ; coughing, sneez- ing, &c, 35 ; muscular action of decapitated frog, 35; closing the eyelids, 37; starting, 38-40; con- traction of the iris, 41. Admiration, 289. Affirmation, signs of, 273. Albinos, blushing in, 313, 327. Alison, Professor, 31. Ambition, 262. Anatomical drawings by Henle, 5. Anatomy and Philosophy of expres- sion, 2. Anderson, Dr., 107, n. 26. Anger, 246 ; in monkeys, 137. Animals, special expressions of, 116. See Expression. , habitual associated movements in the lower, 42-45 ; wolves and jackals, 44 ; horses, 45 ; cats, 46 ; chickens, 47 ; sheldrakes, 47 ; fla- mingo, kagu, and kingfisher, 47, 48. Annesley, Lieut., R.A., 125, n. 4. Antithesis, the principles of, 50 ; dogs, 50, 57; cats, 56; conventional signs, 61. Anxiety, 178. Ape, the Gibbon, produces musical sounds, 87. Arrectores pili, the, 101, 103. Association, the power of, 31 ; in- stances of, 31, 32. Astonishment, 278 ; in monkeys, 144. Audubon, 98, n. 14. Avarice, 262. Azara, 126, n. 6, 129, n. 7. B. Baboon, the Anubis, 96, 134, 138. Bain, Mr., 8, 31, 200, n. 4, 291, n. 16, 328, n. 25. Baker, Sir Samuel, 114. Barber, Mrs., 22, 108, n. 28, 269, 289. Bartlett, Mr., 44, 48, 113, 124, 138. Behn, Dr., 311. Bell, Mr., 293. — - Sir Charles, 2, 9, 49, 116, 121, 158, 173, 213, 220, 222, 305, 337. Bennett, G., 140, n. 16. Bergeon, 169, n. 21. Bernard, Claude, 37, 68, 70, n. 5. Billiard-player, gestures of the, 6. Birds ruffle their feathers when angry, 97 ; when frightened adpress them, 100. Blair, the Rev. R. H., 311, 352. Blind, tendency of the, to blush, 312. Blush, the tendency to, inherited, 312. Blushing, 310; inheritance of, 312; in the various races of man, 316 ; movements and gestures which ac- company, 321 ; confusion of mind, 323; the nature of the mental states which induce, 326 ; shyness, 330 ; moral causes : guilt, 333 ; breaches of etiquette, 334; modesty, 335 ; theory of, 337. , the physiology or mechanism of, 5, 310, n. 1. Blyth, Mr., 97. Bowman, Mr., 160, n. 14, 161, n. 16, 171, 227. Brehm, 96, 129, 138, n. 14, 139, n. 15. Bridges, Mr., 22, 248, 261, 318. Bridgman, Laura, 198, 214, 267, 274, 285, 311. Brinton, Dr., 159, n. 13. Brodie, Sir B., 342. Brooke, the Rajah, 21, 209. Brown, Dr. R., 108, n. 29. Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 13, 76, n. 10, 155, 185, 199, 205, 244, 292, 295, 314, 341, n. 39. Bucknill, Dr., 297. Bulmer, Mr. J., 20, 209, 251, 285, 321. INDEX. EXPRESSION. 3G9 Bunnett, Mr. Templeton, 20, 178, 269. Burgess, Dr., 5, 310, 320, 337. Burton, Captain, 261. Button, Jemmy, the Fuegian, 216, 318. C. Camper, Pierre, 1 and n. 3. Canine tooth, uncovering the, 249. Carpenter on the principles of Com- parative Physiology, 47, n. 17. Cat, the, 46, 126 ; preparing to fight, 56 ; caressing her master, 56 ; drawing back the ears, 111; lash- ing the tail, 126; movements of affection, 127 ; when terrified, 128 ; erecting the tail, 129 ; purring, &c, 129. Catlin, 289. Caton, the Hon. J., 97, n. 11. Cebus azarse, the, 133. Chameleons, 105. Cheerfulness, 212. Chevreul, M., 6. Chimpanzee, the, 95, 132. Cistercian Monks, the, 61 ; gesture- language of, 61. Cobra-de-capello, the, 105. Conceit, 262. Contempt, 254 ; snapping the fingers, 257. i Cooke, the actor, 250. J Cooper, Dr., 105, n. 22. 1 Cope, Professor, 109, n. 31. I Coughing, 164. I Crantz, 260. Darwin, Dr., 30, n. 3, 46, n. 16, 40. Deaf and dumb, opposites used in teaching them, 61, 62, n. 3. Deceit, 262. Decision, or determination, 235 ; closing of the mouth, 236. Dejection, 178. ' Defiance, 249. Depression of mind, 80. Dermal appendages, erection of, 95 in the chimpanzee and orang, 95 lion, &c, 96 ; dog and cat, 96 horses and cattle, 96 ; elk, 97 ; bat 97 ; birds, 97 ; under the influence of anger and fear, 100. Despair, 178. Devotion, the expression of, 220, 221. Diagrams of the muscles of the face, 24, 25. Dickens, Charles, 243. Dilatation of the pupils, 303. Disdain, 254. Disgust, 257 ; spitting a sign of, 261. Dog, the, sympathetic movements of, 7 ; turning round before lying down, 42 ; pointing, 43 ; scratching, &c, 45 ; various gestures of, 63 ; bark- ing a means of expression, 85; whining, 88 ; drawing back the ears, 111; various movements of, 116; gestures of affection, 119; grinning, 120; pain, 122; atten- tion, 122; terror, 122; playing, 123. Donders, Professor, 160, 166, 229, 304. Duchenne, Dr., 5, 11, 14, 133, 150, n. 4, 182. E. Ears, the, drawing back, &c, 111 ; in fighting, dogs, cats, tigers, &c, 111; horses, 112; guanacoes, &c, 112; moose-deer, 113; rabbits, 113; wild boars, 113; monkeys, 114; erection of the, 114. Edgeworth, Maria and R. L., 333. Elephants, 113; weeping, 167. Emission of sounds, 83. See Sounds. Engelmann, Professor, 229. Envy, 262. Erection of the dermal appendages, 95-104. Erskine, Mr. H., 21, 33, 187, 268, 276. Etiquette, breaches of, 334. Expression, anatomy and philosophy of, 2. , general principles of, 27 ; the three chief, 27 ; of serviceable asso- ciated habits, 29 ; of antithesis, 50 ; action of the nervous system, 67. , means of, in animals, 83 ; emis- sion of sounds, 83-94 ; erection of the dermal appendasjes^ 95-104; 2b 370 EXPRESSIONS. INDEX. HIPPOCRATES. inflation of the body, 104-111; drawing back the ears, 111-114; erection of the ears, 114. Expressions, special, of animals, 116 ; dogs, 116-126; cats, 126-129; horses, 129-131 ; ruminants, 131- 132 ; monkeys, baboons, chimpan- zees, 132-146. , special, of man, 147 ; suffering, 114; weeping in children, 148; contraction of the muscles round the eyes during screaming, 158 ; secretion of tears, 163 ; grief, 178 ; obliquity of the eyebrows, 179 ; grief-muscles, 181 ; depression of the corners of the mouth, 193 ; joy, 198 ; high spirits, cheerful- ness, 212; love, tender feelings, 215 ; devotion, 220. Eyebrows, obliquity of the, 179. Eyes, the, contraction of the muscles during screaming, 158. Fear, 81, 289 ; description of, by Job, 291. Feelings, tender, 216; excited by sympathy, 217. Fighting, mode of, in animals, 111; all carnivora fight with their canine teeth, 111 ; dogs, cats, 111 ; horses, guanacoes, &c, 112; moose-deer, 113; rabbits, 113; boars, 113; elephants, 113; rhinoceros, 114; monkeys, 114. Forbes, Mr. D., 232, 318, 336. Ford, Mr., 95. Forster, J. R., 318. Foster, Mr. Michael, 343, 344. Fox, the, 125. Freycinet, 175. Frogs, 35, 104. Frowning, the act of, 3, 223 ; men of all races frown, 224 ; in infants, 225 ; to assist vision, 226 ; to ex- clude the bright light, 227. Fyffe, Dr., 304. Gaika, Christian, 22, 209, 255, 295, 320. Galton, Mr. F., 33, n. 8. Garrod, Mr. A. H., 74, n. 9. Gaskell, Mrs., 151, n. 5. Geach, Mr. F., 21, 187, 252, 261, 268, 317. Gesture-language, 61. Gestures, 32, 62 ; inheritance of ha- bitual, 33, n. 8 ; accompanying blushing, 321. Glenie, the Rev. S. O., 21, 167, 252. Goose-skin, 101, 103. Gordon, Lady Duff", 317. Gorilla, the, 95, 143. Gould, 100, n. 14. Gratiolet, Pierre, 6, 32, 119, 227, 229, n. 6, 236, 243, n. 9, 338. Gray, Professor, and Mrs. Asa, 22, 268, 316. Green, Mrs., 20. Grief, 80; expression of, 178; obli- quity of the eyebrows, 179 ; depres- sion of the- corners of the mouth, 193 ; in monkeys, 135. Grief-muscles, 181-193. Gueldenstadt, 125, n. 4. • Guilt, 262 ; causes blushing, 333. Gunning, Dr., 162. Giinther, Dr., 100, 105, 108, n. 30. •j Habit, force of, 29. Hagenauer, the Rev., 20, 194, 262, 321. Hair, change of colour in the, 67,: 342 ; erection of the, 101, 295. Haller, 88. 'Handbuch der Anatomie des Men-r schen,' 5, n. 7. Hares, 83. Harvey, 30, n. 3. Hatred, 239 ; rage, 240 ; anger, indig- nation, 246 ; sneering, defiance, un- 1 covering the canine tooth, 249. Heart, the, sensitive to external emo- ' tions, 68 ; re -acts on the brain, 69 ; , affected by rage, 74. Helmholtz, 88, 91. Helplessness, 264. Henderson, Mr., 409, n. 31. Henle, 149, n. 2, 193, n. 6, 203. Herpestes, the, 98, 108, 110. High spirits, 212; definition of, by child, 212. Hippocrates, 30, n. 3, 72. INDEX. MECANISME. 371 Holland, Sir Henry, 36, 37, 71, n. 8, 339, n. 33, 340. Homer's description of laughter, 198. Horror, 304. Horse, the, 45 ; nibbling, pawing of, 45 ; scream in distress, 84 ; fight- ing, 112; expression of fear, plea- sure, &c, 130. Humboldt, 137, 319. Humility, 262. Huschke, 287. Huxley, Professor, 31, n. 5, 35, n. 9. Hyama, the, 123. Idiots, expression of joy in, 199 ; blushing, 311. Ill-temper, 230. Impotence, 264. Indignation, 246. Infants, expression in, 13 ; crying of, 148 ; weeping, 153. Inflation of the body, &c, 104 ; in toads and frogs, 104 ; chameleons, &c, 105; snakes, 105-111. Inheritance of habitual gestures, 33, n. 8 ; blushing, 312. Innes, Dr., 267. Intercommunication, power of, with social animals, 60 ; deaf and dumb, 61 ; dogs and cats, 63. Jealousy, 79, 262. Jerdon, Dr., 108. Job, description of fear by, 291. Joy, expression of, 75, 198 ; in young children, 76 ; dogs, horses, 76 ; monkeys, 132 ; laughter, 198 ; high spirits, cheerfulness, 212 ; love, tender feelings, 215. Jukes, Mr. J. B., 275. Kangaroos, 113. Kindermann, Herr, 23, 148, n. 1. King, Major Ross, 113. Kissing, 216. Kolliker, 101. Lacy, Mr. Dyson, 20, 232, 243. Lane, Mr. H. B., 20. Lang, Mr. Archibald G., 20. Langstaff, Dr., 148, 152, 314. Language, gesture, 611. Laughter, 93, 133, 164; in monkeys, 132 ; joy expressed by, 198 ; in children, 198; in idiots, 199; in grown-up persons, 199 ; caused by tickling, 201 ; sparkling eye, 206 tears caused by excessive, 208 among Hindoos, Malays, &c, 209 to conceal feelings, 214; incipient, in a baby, 211. Lavater, G., 3, n. 6. Laycock, Professor, 340. Le Brun, 1, 4, 247, n. 13. Leichhardt, 261. Lemoine, M., 2, 359. Lessing's Laocoon, 15 n. 19. Leydig, 101, 103. Lieber, Mr. F., 198, n. 2, 274. Lister, Mr., 101, 201, n. 6. Litchfield, Mr., 89. Lizards, 105. Lock wood, the Rev. S., 87, n. 3. Lorain, M., 74, n. 9. Love, maternal, 78 ; of the opposite sexes, 78 ; expression of, 215 ; kiss- ing, a mark of, 216 ; excites tears, 216. Low spirits, 178. Lubbock, Sir John, 155, 216, n. 22. Man, special expressions of, 147. See Expression. Mankind, early history of, 257, n. 6. Marshall, Mr., 155, n. 9, 199, n. 3. Martin, W. L., 133, 137, 140, n. 17. Martius, 319. Matthews, Mr. Washington, 22, 230, 257, 268, 276, 289. Maudsley, Dr., 36, n. 10, 39, n. 14, 245, 342, n. 40. Mauvaise honte, 330. May, Mr. A., 26. 1 Mecanisme de la Physionomie Hu- maine,' 33, n. 7. 372 MEDITATION. INDEX. RUMINANTS. Meditation, 228 ; often accompanied by certain gestures, 230. Meyer, Dr. Adolf, 275. Mind, confusion of, while blushing, 323. Modesty, 335. Monkeys, 60 ; power of intercommu- nication and expression of, 60, 88, 96; their special expressions, 132; pleasure, joy, &c, 132; painful emotions, 135 ; anger, 137 ; redden with passion, 138 ; screaming, 140 ; sulkiness in, 140 ; frowning in, 143 ; astonishment, terror in, 144. Moose-deer, the, 113. Moreau, M., 3, 314. Movements, symbolic, 6 ; sympa- thetic, 7. , associated habitual, in the lower animals, 42 ; dogs, 42-45 ; wolves and jackals, 44; horses, 45; cats, 46 ; chickens, 47 ; sheldrakes, &c, 47, 48. Mowbray on Poultry, 47, n. 18. Miiller, Dr. Ferdinand, 20. , Fritz, 12, 29, n. 2, 68, n. 2,71, n. 6, 268. Music, 219. N. Negation, signs of, 273. Nervous system, direct action of the, 66 ; change of colour in the hair, 67, 342 ; trembling of the muscles, 67 ; secretions affected, 68 ; perspi- ration, 73 ; rage, 74 ; joy, 75 ; terror, 77 ; love, 78 ; jealousy, 79 ; grief, 80. Nicol, Mr. Patrick, 14, 185, 300. Ogle, Dr. W., 256, n. 3, 271, 294, 306. Oliphant, Mrs., 80, n. 12, 270. Olmsted, 270. Owen, Professor, 10, n. 13, 87, n. 3, 143, n. 18. Paget, Sir J., 68, 117, 312, 342. Pain, outward signs of, in animals, 69 ; in man, 69 ; in the hippopota- mus, 70 ; induces perspiration, 73 ; depression, 81. Parsons, J., 1, n. 1. Perspiration caused by pain, 73. Physiology of laughter, 9. ' Physionomie, de la, et des Mouve- ments d'Expression,' 6. Piderit, Dr., 7, 23, 152, 206, 223, 237, 256. Pigs employed to destroy rattlesnakes, 108. Platysma myoides muscle, contraction of the, 298. Plautus, 230. Porcupines, 93. Pouchet, M. G., 67, n. 1. Pride, 263. Psychology, principles of, 9. Puff-adder, the, 105. Pupils, dilatation of the, 303. Queries regarding expression, &c, 15. Rabbits, 83, 93, 113. Rage, 74, 240 ; trembling a conse- quence of, 241 ; Shakespeare's de- scription of, 242 ; snarling with the teeth, 243. Rattlesnake, the, 107, 109. Reade, Mr. Winwood, 21, 279, 289. Reflection, 222 ; deep, generally ac- companied with a frown, 224. Reflex actions, 35. Rejlander, Mr., 23, 148, n. 1, 183, 202, 250. Rengger, 60, 88, 133, n. 11, 137. Resignation, 271. Retching or vomiting, 159, Revenge, 262. Reynolds, Sir J., 208, n. 15. Rhinoceros, 73, 114. Riviere, Mr., 26, 121. Rothrock, Dr., 22, 232, 252, 260. Ruminants, their emotions, 131. SALVIN. INDEX. VOICE. 373 Salvin, Mr. F., 44, n. 15. Sandwich islanders, 175. Savage and Wyman, Messrs., 143. Schmalz, 274. Scorn, 254. Scott, Sir W., 121. , Mr. J., 21, 187, 248-250, 260, 267. , Dr. W. R., 62, n. 3. Scream, as a call for assistance, 91. Secretary-hawk, the, 110. Secretions, affected by strong emo- tions, 68. Senses, the, and the Intellect, 8. n. 8, 31. Shaler, Professor, 107, 109. Shame, gestures of, 321 ; description of, in Isaiah, Ezra, &c, 322. Sheldrake, the, 47. Shrugging the shoulders, 264. Shyness, 330. Signs of affirmation and negation, 273 ; conventional, 61. Slyness, 263. Smiling, 204, 211; in infants, 212; in savages, 213. Smith, Sir Andrew, 209. Smyth, Mr. Brough, 20, 285, 294. Snakes, 105-111. Snapping the fingers, 257. Sneering or snarling, 249. Sobbing, peculiar to the human species, 157. Somerville, 121. Sounds, the emission of, efficient as a means of expression, 83 ; between the sexes, 84; to animals when separated, 84 ; of rage, 85 ; the bark of a dog, 85 ; tamed jackals, 86 ; pigeons, 86 ; human voice, 86 ; as a means of courtship, 87 ; music, 89 ; in young infants, 92 ; of sur- prise, contempt, and disgust, 92 ; rabbits, 93 ; porcupines, 93 ; in- sects, 94; birds, 94. Speedy, Captain, 22, 261, 268. Spencer, Mr. Herbert, 9, 10, n. 11, 27, n. 1, 71, 86, 200, 227, n. 5, 263. Sphinx-moth, the humming-bird, 30. Spitting, a sign of disgust, 261. Spix, von, 319. St. John, Mr., 47. Stack, the Rev. J. W., 20, 233, 248, 317. Stuart, Mr., 280. Suffering of body and mind, 147. Sulkiness, 232 ; expression of, prevails throughout the world, 233 ; in mon- keys, 140; in young orangs, &c, 234. Summary, 348. Surprise, 278. Suspicion, 262. Sutton, Mr., 95, 139, 145, 167, 259. Swinhoe, Mr., 21, 208, 248, 317. Sympathy, 217. T. Taplin, the Rev. George, 20, 187, 247, 321. Taylor, the Rev. R., 156. Tears, cause of the secretion of, 163 ; laughing, coughing, 164 ; yawning, 165 ; reflex action, 170. Tegetmeier, Mr., 100. Tendencies, inherited or instinctive, 30. Tennent, Sir J. Emerson, 167. Terror, 77, 289 ; in an insane woman, 292 ; in murderers, 293 ; dilatation of the pupils, 303. Thwaites, Mr., 167. Tickling, 201. Toads, 104. Trembling, induced by fear, 67 ; by delight, 67 ; by fine music, 68 ; by rage, 68 ; by terror, 77. Turner, Professor W., 101, n. 18. Tylor, Mr., 61, n. 2, 257, 261, n. 11. Vanity, 262. Variation of animals and plants under domestication, 33, n. 8. Vaso-motor system, the, 69. Virchow, 35, n. 9. Vceux, Mr. des, 110, n. 32. Vogt, C, 206, n. 12, 274. Voice, the human, 86. I 2 c 374 WALLICH. INDEX. W. Wallich, Dr., 23, 202. Weale, Mr. J. P. Mansel, 22, 230, 233, 286. Wedgwood, Mr. Hensleigh, 104, 164, n. 18, 221, 232, n. io, 241, n. 6, 273. Weeping, 147 ; the period of first shedding tears in infants quite un- certain, 153 ; in savages, 155 ; in the insane, 155; checking or in- creasing the habit of, 156 ; scream- ing and sobbing of infants, 157. See Tears. Weir, Mr. Jenner, 98. West, Mr., 21. Wild-boar, 113. Wilson, Mr., 19. , Mr. Samuel, 20, 320. ' Wissenschaftliches System der Mi- mik und Physiognomik,' 7. Wolf, Mr., 26. Wood, Mr. J., 181, n. 3, 297, 302. , Mr. T. W., 25. Wrinkles, 204. T. Yawning, 134, 165. THE END. LONDON : PRINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREET, AND CHARING. CROSS. „ ... Albemarle Street, November, 1872. RECENT WORKS SELECTION FROM THE FAMILIAR LETTERS OF SIR CHARLES BELL, F.R.S. With Portrait, Post 8vo. \2s. "The book is replete with interest from beginning to end, not only on account of the delightful picture it gives of Sir Charles Bell, but also of the celebrated people with whom he was constantly coming in contact. We must leave the reader to trace out for himself Sir Charles Bell's career in his profession ; the order of his scientific works, and the great discovery by which his name will ever be known ; and the innocent but intense pleasure which he always derived from fishing, sketching, and studying the wonderful* beauties of nature. He himself was one of nature's noblemen." — Standard. RUDE STONE MONUMENTS IN ALL COUNTRIES: their Age and Uses. By James Fersusson, F.R.S. With 230 Illustrations, Medium Svo, 24JV RECORDS OF THE ROCKS : or, Notes on the Geology, Natural History, and Antiquities of North and South Wales, Siluria, Devonshire, and Cornwall. By Rev. Wm. S. Symonds, F.G.S. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo. THE STUDENTS ELEMENTS OF GEOLOGY. By Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S. With 600 Woodcuts Post 8vo, gs. PRINCIPLES OF GEOLOGY: or, The Modern Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants, considered as illustrative of Geology. By Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S. Eleventh Edition. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. 16V. each. THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN, from Geological Evidences; with Remarks on Theories of the Origin of Species by Variation. By Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S. Fourth Edition. Illustrations. 8vo. In Preparation* SILURIA : a History of the Oldest Rocks in the British Isles and other Countries, with a Sketch of the Distribution of Native Gold. By Sir Roderick Murchison, F.R.S. Fifth a?id Cheaper {Edition. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. 1 8s. RECENT WORKS— continued. A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY. For the Use of Travellers. Edited by Sir J. F. Herschel and Rev. Robert Main. Fourth Edition. Post 8vo. $s. 6d. THE CONNECTION OF THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES, By Mary Somerville. Ninth Edition. With Portrait. Post 8vo, gs. , PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. By Mary Somerville. SixL Edition. Revised by H. W. Bates. With Portrait. Post 8vo. 9-r. MOLECULAR AND MICROSCOPIC SCIENCE. By Mary Somerville. With Illustrations. 2 vols. Post 8vo. 21s. , THE RIVERS, MOUNTAINS, AND SEA-COAST 0 YORKSHIRE. With Essays on the Climate, Scenery, and Ancient Inhabitants of the Country. By John Phillips, F.R.S Second Edition. With Plates. 8vo. i$s. : METALLURGY: the Art of Extracting Metals from their Ore: and adapting them to various purposes of Manufacture. By John Percy, M.D., F.R.S. Vol 3.— LEAD. With numerous Illustra- tions. 8vo. 30J. THE HARVEST OF THE SEA: a Contribution to the Natural and Economic History of the British Food Fishes. By James G. Bertram. With 50 Illustrations. 8vo. 12s. THE GENTLEMAN'S HOUSE: or, How to Plan English Residences, from the Parsonage to the Palace. With Tables of Accommodation and Cost, and a Series of Selected Plans. By Robert Kerr. Third Edition. With Views and Plans. 8vo. 24X. THE CHOICE OF A DWELLING: a Practical Handbook of Useful Information on all Points connected with a House. By Gervase Wheeler. Third Thousand. With Plans. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. ALPINE FLOWERS FOR ENGLISH GARDENS. An explanation of the Principles on which they may be grown tc Perfection in all Parts of the British Islands, with numerous Illustrations of Rock-gardens, Natural and Artificial. By W. Robinson, F.L.S. With Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 12s. [Continued. RECENT WORKS— continued. THE SUB-TROPICAL GARDEN: or, Beauty of Form in the Flower Garden, with Illustrations of all the finer Plants used for this purpose. By W. Robinson, F.L.S. With Illustrations Small 8vo. p. 6d. THE WILD GARDEN: or, Our Groves and Shrubberies MADE BEAUTIFUL BY THE NATURALIZATION OF HARDY EXOTIC Plants. With a Chapter on British Wild Flowers. By W. Robinson, F.L.S. With Frontispiece. Small 8vo. 6s. TREES AND SHRUBS FOR ENGLISH PLANTATIONS. A Description of the most Ornamental, Native and Foreign, which will flourish in the Open Air ; with Classified Lists of the several Species, for the purposes of Practical Application. By Augustus Mongredien. With Illustrations. 8vo. i6.r. PLAIN INSTRUCTIONS IN GARDENING FOR LADIES. With Directions for every month in the year. By Mrs. Loudon. With Illustrations. Small 8vo. y. 6d. A GEOGRAPHICAL HANDBOOK OF ALL KNOWN FERNS. With Tables to show their Distribution. By K. M. Lyell. Post 8vo. Js. 6d. THE CLEMATIS, AS A GARDEN FLOWER. With Descriptions of the Hardy Species and Varieties, and hints as to tthe purposes for which they are adapted. By Thomas Moore, F.L.S., and George Jackman, F.R.H.S. With Woodcuts. 8vo. 10 j. 6d. E NATURALIST ON THE RIVER AMAZONS ; during Eleven Years of Travels and Adventures. By H. W. Bates. Second Edition. With Illustrations. Post 8vo. 12s. TRAVELS OF A FRENCH NATURALIST IN SI AM, CAMBODIA, AND LAOS. By Henri Mouhot, F.R.G.S. With Illustrations. 2 vols. 8vo. TRAVELS IN JAVA, CELEBES, AMBOYNA, THE SPICE ISLANDS, SUMATRA, and many other Islands of the East Indian Archipelago, with an especial view to their Natural History, &c. By A. S. Bickmore, M.A. With Map and Illustra- tions. 8vo. 2 1 j. [Continued. I RECENT WORKS -continued. TRAVELS IN THE EASTERN CAUCASUS, ON TH. CASPIAN AND BLACK SEAS. By Gen. Sir Arthi Cunnynghame, K.C.B. With Map and Illustrations. 8vo. A JOURNEY TO THE SOURCE OF THE RIVE OXUS. By the late Capt. John Wood (Indian Navy). Nt Edition. Edited by His Son. With a Chapter on the Geograpl of the Valley of the Oxus. By Col. Henry Yule, C.B. Wi Map. 8vo. BENEDICITE : or, The Song of the Three Childre; Being Illustrations of the Power, Beneficence, and Design mai fested by the Creator in His Works. By G. Chaplin Child, M. Third Edition. Post 8vo. 6s. THE ART OF TRAVEL: or, Hints on the Shifts a Contrivances available in Wild Countries. By Fran Galton, F.R.G.S. Fifth Edition. With Woodcuts. Small I 6s. CLEANINGS IN NATURAL HISTORY. With Anec of the Sagacity and Instinct of Animals. By Edward J I With Woodcuts. Small 8vo. %s. 6d. PA TTERNS FOR TURNING ; comprising Elliptical and c Figures cut on the Lathe without the use of any Ornamental Ch By W. H. Elphinstone. With 70 Illustrations. Small 4to. if " All the patterns contained in this book can be cut on a lathe furnished with a divii plate, an ornamental slide rest, am eccentric cutting frame and an over-head motion." . C89050014 JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. JSP. Hl7 W» f